Manganese (Mn)

This page draws on evidence from EFSA, together with 22 peer-reviewed studies and 2 other cited sources. The complete citation list is at the bottom of the page.

Overview

Manganese is an essential trace element. It activates enzymes and is a constituent of several, including glycosyl transferases, pyruvate carboxylase and manganese superoxide dismutase, and deficiency causes impaired growth, skeletal abnormalities and faults in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism 1. It is needed for skeletal formation and for amino acid, cholesterol and carbohydrate metabolism 2.

The same element is a neurotoxicant at high exposure 3. In excess it produces motor and psychiatric disturbances attributed to dysfunction of the basal ganglia, and enhanced susceptibility has been reported during fetal and infant development 4. Food is the main source of intake for the general population, and absorption from the gut and removal by the liver are closely regulated 5. Excretion runs mainly through bile to feces 6.

Manganese occurs naturally in bedrock, soil, water, air and plants, and can also enter the environment from mining, industrial emissions and landfill leaching 7. In groundwater it is mostly found as soluble, bioavailable manganese(II) under low-oxygen conditions, and it oxidizes to insoluble manganese(IV) as pH and redox potential rise 7. Uses that can release it include metal industries, a gasoline additive and agricultural fungicides 3.

Toxicology

A toxicology textbook chapter discusses manganese in chapter-level metal transport, excretion, and essential-metal context as cross-metal toxicology background 8.

Human studies

In a Mexico City birth cohort, children whose 12-month blood manganese was in the highest fifth of the distribution showed larger lead-related declines in mental and psychomotor development scores than children with midrange manganese, which the authors describe as synergism between the two metals 9. An earlier analysis of the same cohort found a bell-shaped (rising then falling) relation, with lower mental scores at both the lowest and highest manganese levels 9. No interaction was seen with 24-month blood metals 9.

A Finnish groundwater paper summarizes earlier work in which higher manganese in tap water and hair of Canadian schoolchildren was associated with lower IQ scores, with a tenfold increase in water manganese linked to 2.4 fewer IQ points; the same association was not found for manganese intake from food 7. The paper also summarizes evidence that the risk of neurotoxic effects in children begins to rise when drinking water exceeds 100 µg/L 7. These are secondary summaries rather than new measurements.

An ecological study in rural Huai’an, China, reported that village drinking water manganese correlated with cancer incidence and mortality in the low-flow season, with 0.45 more cases and 0.35 more deaths per 100,000 for each 1 µg/L increase 10. The design cannot separate manganese from smoking, diet or other local factors, which the authors acknowledge 10. In Japan, a cohort analysis summarized in an editorial linked higher dietary manganese with lower cardiovascular mortality, and the editorial notes the finding may partly reflect plant-food intake 11.

Animal and cell studies

Immature female rats given manganese chloride by mouth for two weeks around puberty had lower ovary, uterus or oviduct weights at some doses and altered follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone, without a consistent dose pattern and without advanced puberty onset 12. In neonatal mice dosed orally from birth to day 28, liver iron fell as manganese dose rose and liver expression of the iron regulator hepcidin and of iron and manganese exporters tracked liver iron 13.

After a single low intravenous dose in rats, total brain manganese rose by 19% and shifted toward low molecular mass carriers, including a citrate-sized fraction, with changes in amino acid, fatty acid, glutathione, glucose and nucleotide metabolism 6. In human stem-cell-derived cultures, more mature dopaminergic neurons accumulated more manganese than earlier neuroprogenitors, a lineage the authors describe as especially vulnerable to environmental manganese 4.

Typical exposure routes

People without occupational exposure take in manganese mainly through food and water, with smaller contributions from inhaled dust and, to a lesser degree, skin contact with air, water and soil 7. Occupational inhalation is described as the major hazardous route, and a gasoline additive and manganese-containing pesticides add to environmental inhalation in some countries 6. Manganese is a recognized workplace toxicant by inhalation, and the European feed safety panel could not conclude on worker safety when handling a dusty manganese feed additive 1.

Drinking water

Private wells and untreated rural supplies can carry much more manganese than treated or oxygenated water. In Finland, drilled bedrock wells had a median of 26.8 µg/L against 0.56 µg/L for springs, and concentrations at a single well varied widely between years, so the authors advise that one sample may not reveal a well’s status 7. In the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, wells in sandstone and shale aquifers exceeded 100 ppb far more often than wells in limestone and dolostone karst, and the authors attribute this mainly to redox conditions 14. Manganese may be more readily absorbed from drinking water than from food, according to a summary of Canadian guidance 7.

Betel quid

Betel quid chewing is an additional dietary route in Bangladeshi communities. Among Bangladeshi adults in the United Kingdom, chewers had a mean urinary manganese of 1.93 µg/L against 0.62 µg/L in non-chewers, and ordinary quids contained a mean of 41 mg/kg dry weight, mostly from betel leaf and tobacco 15. Six quids a day were estimated to supply 18% of the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake used by the authors 15.

Agricultural fungicides and house dust

Near banana plantations sprayed from the air with the manganese-containing fungicide mancozeb in Costa Rica, pregnant women living within 50 m of a plantation had 42.1% higher hair manganese, and hair manganese also rose with drinking water manganese 5. In California’s Salinas Valley, where manganese fungicides are used mostly on lettuce, prenatal tooth manganese correlated with house dust manganese and was higher when a farm worker lived in the home 3.

Soil and topical contact

One study reports manganese findings in market-purchased clays used for topical sun protection in Durban, South Africa 16. The measurements concern dried and ground material; the limited sampling and unreported detection limits constrain comparison with other products. The study does not establish dermal absorption or manganese concentrations in formulated sunscreen.

One Nilore, Islamabad soil characterization reported manganese of 2033.91 µg/g by bulk elemental analysis (Table 2). The source does not state a wet/dry basis or replicated uncertainty. This is a local soil result; it does not measure food occurrence or crop transfer 17.

Food sources

Plant foods dominate dietary manganese. Reported major sources include green tea, unrefined cereals, legumes and vegetables 11, and tea, nuts, whole grains, legumes and fruits 7. In Korean adults, cereals, vegetables and beans were the main suppliers 18. In Seoul schoolchildren, cereals supplied 50.8% of manganese intake, and milled rice alone supplied 39.8%, followed by soybean curd (soy) and kimchi 2.

The leading source depends on diet and on assessment method. Japanese studies up to 1990 found rice and other cereals supplied more than half of intake, whereas a recent Japanese cohort using a food frequency questionnaire attributed 84% to green tea beverages 11. For people in Bangladesh, modelled intake was led by steamed rice, tea infusions, green vegetables, and lentils and beans, and the authors link higher manganese among residents of Bangladesh mainly to greater intake of plant-based foods 15.

Foods of animal origin generally contribute little to overall manganese intake 1. In chickens fed manganese at levels from 60 to 1920 mg/kg feed, breast muscle manganese stayed between 0.9 and 2.3 mg/kg dry matter with no significant differences by dose 1, supporting the view that chicken meat is a minor source.

Regional vegetable surveys

Premna latifolia leaves collected in three Andhra Pradesh villages had different reported elemental concentrations 19. Village-specific values are preserved as local leafy-vegetable evidence; the paper supplies no replicate counts or uncertainty estimates. Supports geographic variation in six elements in a specific wild edible leaf. It does not establish nutritional adequacy, safety, or a regional market distribution. The source’s characterization of aluminum as an essential nutrient is not adopted.

Gergen and Harmanescu analyze metal contamination patterns across two historic Romanian mining areas and a reference area 20. Their PCA study reproduces vegetable concentrations and male hazard quotients from an earlier 2011 study; these remain linked secondary observations rather than additional independent samples. Supports legacy mining and tissue/region differences. Parsley root and leaf remain distinct, as do carrot root and leaf. The fresh-matter food table is retained with cohort linkage so that a reanalysis cannot inflate the evidence pool. Source THQ rankings are model results, not clinical outcomes.

Regulatory limits

The papers cited here report, rather than reproduce, the legal and advisory texts, so the values below are given as each paper states them.

Drinking water

China’s national drinking water standard treats manganese above 100 µg/L as exceeding the standard 10. Finland has no health-based standard; its quality recommendation, based on technical and aesthetic effects, is below 50 µg/L, with 100 µg/L for small units and private wells 7. The same paper reports a World Health Organization health-based value of 400 µg/L, for which WHO did not derive a formal guideline 7. A later paper reports that WHO set a provisional drinking water guideline of 80 ppb in 2021 and that the US EPA lifetime health advisory is 300 ppb 14. Water above 100 µg/L can cause an undesirable taste and stain laundry and sanitary ware 7.

Dietary reference values

Korean dietary reference intakes set an adequate intake for ages 12 to 14 of 4.0 mg/day for boys and 3.5 mg/day for girls, with a tolerable upper intake level of 7.0 mg/day 2. For adults, the adequate intake is reported as 4.0 and 3.5 mg/day for Japanese men and women and 2.3 and 1.8 mg/day in North America, with an upper level of 11 mg/day in both systems 11. One exposure study used a provisional maximum tolerable daily intake of 140 µg/kg body weight per day, or 9520 µg/day for a 68 kg adult 15.

Infant formula

For infant formula and baby food, manganese is included in compositional requirements similarly to zinc; regulators set minimum and maximum permitted manganese contents per 100 kcal. One study evaluated manganese intake from powdered infant formula and reported formula means above the minimum compositional requirement and below the maximum 21.

Animal feed

In the EU, total manganese in complete feed may not exceed 100 mg/kg for fish and 150 mg/kg for other species, and EFSA concluded that a manganese hydroxychloride feed additive is safe for consumers when those maximum contents are respected 1. The Panel also judged the additive’s cadmium, lead and arsenic impurities to be within the limits of Directive 2002/32/EC 1.

The cited evidence states no maximum levels for manganese in foods.

Testing

Most studies cited here measured manganese by ICP-MS, including water 14, blood 9, and digested foods and urine 15. Finnish groundwater data used ICP-MS or ICP atomic emission spectrometry with a detection limit of 0.02 µg/L 7. Hair from pregnant women in Costa Rica was analyzed by electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry 5. One pediatric study also used atomic absorption but reported no detection limit or reference material results 22. Soil studies used X-ray fluorescence with X-ray absorption spectroscopy for oxidation state 14, and brain speciation used size-exclusion chromatography coupled to ICP-MS 6.

There is no consensus on the best biomarker of manganese exposure. Blood manganese is homeostatically regulated and short-lived, urine varies widely within a person and reflects a minor excretion route, and hair can be contaminated externally 3. Manganese in prenatal tooth dentin, measured by laser ablation ICP-MS against calcium, correlated with house dust manganese and is described by the authors as a promising marker of perinatal exposure 3. For well water, part of the manganese is bound to particles, and the authors recommend measuring both total and dissolved manganese 7.

Microbiome effects

The cited evidence does not establish effects of dietary manganese on the human gut microbiome. One laboratory study found that adding manganese to growth medium strongly increased biofilm formation by some Bacillus cereus strains isolated from Korean soybean paste, and the induced biofilms held more spores and resisted a sanitizer better 23. This concerns foodborne bacteria on processing surfaces, not gut communities; see metals and biofilm formation.

Vulnerable populations

Fetuses and infants may be especially vulnerable because manganese crosses the placenta and young children absorb and retain a larger fraction of manganese taken in by mouth than adults 3. In a California farm community, geometric mean cord blood manganese was 39.9 µg/L, nearly twice the maternal level at delivery 3. Manganese intake by pregnant Bangladeshi women is flagged as a particular concern for the same reason 15. Children with iron deficiency anemia may be at risk of manganese toxicity, according to work summarized in the Finnish groundwater paper 7, and in mice high early-life oral manganese lowered liver iron 13. Children with high manganese also appeared more sensitive to lead in a Mexico City cohort 9.

Pregnant women living near plantations sprayed with mancozeb had higher blood and hair manganese than reported in most studies of pregnant women 5. In children with sickle cell anemia in a low-resource area of DR Congo, manganese did not differ significantly from matched controls 22.

Girls and early puberty

A multicentric study reports urinary metal biomarkers and early-puberty associations in girls recruited across six Spanish hospitals during 2018 to 2022 24. The source keeps case and control summaries, detection frequencies and observational effect estimates separate. A single urine measurement and case-control sampling cannot establish exposure before puberty onset, causality, or a particular consumer-product source.

Mitigation

The cited evidence establishes little about removing manganese from food or water. Well siting and testing are the main practical points it supports: wells and springs in carbonate karst aquifers had far fewer results above 100 ppb than those in sandstone and shale 14, and repeated testing for both total and dissolved manganese is advised because a single sample may not reflect a well’s status 7. In animal feed, keeping total manganese within the EU maximum contents is the condition under which a manganese additive is judged not to raise consumer exposure through animal products 1.

Bashkin and Galiulina review vegetable-associated metal exposure assessment and microbial/agronomic risk-management approaches 25. Chinese and Russian case-study values are secondary reports; they remain traceable to the cited studies and are not counted as new independent occurrence samples. Supports exposure-method and remediation literature discovery. Bacterial effects can increase as well as decrease uptake depending on organism, metal and plant; the review does not establish a universal inoculant intervention. Secondary model outputs are not contemporary health or certification thresholds.

The cited evidence does not establish water treatment methods for manganese or processing steps that lower manganese in foods.

Open questions

• Water treatment and food processing: no cited paper evaluates removal of manganese from drinking water or foods.
• Regulatory limits: the legal and advisory texts for drinking water, dietary reference values and feed are reported second-hand; no cited paper states food maximum levels for manganese.
• Water versus food: whether manganese in drinking water is absorbed or acts differently from manganese in food, as summarized for Canadian children, needs direct evidence.
• Dose-response: the bell-shaped (rising then falling) relation with child development and the manganese and lead interaction come from one cohort and need confirmation, with clearer thresholds.
• Biomarkers: no validated biomarker of perinatal or long-term manganese exposure; tooth dentin is promising but tested in small samples.
• High-intake diets: Korean, Japanese and Bangladeshi intakes often exceed adequate intake levels, and some Korean adults exceeded the upper level; health relevance of sustained high plant-food intake is not established.
• Microbiome effects: no cited evidence on gut microbiome effects of dietary manganese.
• Infant foods: apart from one formula evaluation, the cited evidence does not measure manganese in infant formula, baby food or packaged foods.
• Mitigation: limited to well siting, testing and feed limits.

Frequently asked questions

What remains uncertain

Most measured values on this page come from drinking water and human biomarkers rather than foods. Dietary intake figures for Korea, Japan and Bangladesh are estimates built from food tables, recall or questionnaire data and, for Bangladesh, partly from literature values, so they show patterns of intake rather than measured exposure.

Health evidence is uneven. The human findings are observational, often small, and in the Chinese cancer study ecological. Several key statements, including the IQ association with water manganese and the vulnerability of children with iron deficiency, appear here as summaries within other papers. Animal and cell studies use doses and routes, including intravenous injection, that do not map directly onto dietary exposure.

Regulatory values are reported as the cited papers state them and may have been revised since. Readers who need the current legal value should consult the issuing body’s text.

Sources

• Toxic Effects of Metals, Casarett & Doull’s Essentials of Toxicology (2021; textbook): chapter-level metal transport, excretion and essential-metal context.
• Determination of 40 elements in powdered infant formulas (2021; peer-reviewed): manganese in powdered infant formula relative to compositional requirements.
• Synthetic phenols and metal(loid)s and early puberty in Spanish girls (2026; peer-reviewed): urinary metal biomarkers in girls with and without early puberty.
• Clays from Durban for cosmetic applications (2024; peer-reviewed): manganese in market cosmetic clays used for sun protection.
• Electrokinetic remediation of hexavalent chromium from soil (2008; peer-reviewed): bulk manganese in one Islamabad soil.
• Premna latifolia leaves analyzed by ICP-MS (2024; peer-reviewed): village variation in elements in a wild leafy vegetable.
• Risk of heavy metal accumulation in vegetable crops (2021; review): exposure assessment and risk-management approaches for vegetables.
• Principal component analysis of vegetables in old mining areas (2012; peer-reviewed): metal patterns in vegetables from Romanian mining areas.
• Manganese daily intake among adults in Korea (2008; peer-reviewed): estimated adult intake and upper-level exceedance.
• Daily manganese intake of Korean children aged 11 to 12 (2011; peer-reviewed): child intake, food sources and Korean reference values.
• Betel quid chewing as a manganese source (2011; peer-reviewed): manganese in quid components, urine of chewers and modelled total intake.
• Manganese in rural drinking water and cancer in Huai’an (2014; peer-reviewed): rural drinking water manganese and ecological cancer correlations.
• Early childhood manganese and lead coexposure (2012; peer-reviewed): child blood manganese and interaction with lead on development.
• Variation in groundwater manganese in Finland (2021; peer-reviewed): national well water occurrence and Finnish and WHO values.
• Manganese biomarkers in a California farm community (2014; peer-reviewed): teeth, blood, urine and dust manganese in mothers and children.
• Trace elements in children with sickle cell anemia (2018; peer-reviewed): manganese in children with sickle cell anemia and controls.
• Blood and hair manganese in pregnant women, Costa Rica (2014; peer-reviewed): biomarkers near fungicide-sprayed plantations and well water manganese.
• Manganese in Shenandoah Valley spring and well water (2024; peer-reviewed): well and spring occurrence by aquifer type and reported WHO and EPA values.
• Manganese in the Japanese diet (2022; review): Japanese reference values, intake estimates and sources.
• Manganese hydroxychloride as a feed additive (2016; government-report): EU feed maximum contents and consumer safety conclusion.
• Manganese and reproductive organs in immature female rats (2012; peer-reviewed): animal reproductive toxicity signal.
• Brain metallome and metabolome after manganese injection (2015; peer-reviewed): brain manganese speciation and metabolic changes in rats.
• Manganese, iron, zinc and copper in neonatal mice (2017; peer-reviewed): early-life manganese lowers liver iron in mice.
• Manganese content in human dopaminergic neurons (2014; peer-reviewed): cell-level regulation of neuronal manganese.
• Manganese and heme in Bacillus cereus biofilm (2018; peer-reviewed): manganese promotes biofilm in some foodborne bacterial strains.

References

Works cited in this page’s text, in first-appearance order. See Sources for this page’s source inventory. Each title links to a source record with bibliographic details, reported findings, and document provenance.

1. Safety and efficacy of manganese hydroxychloride as feed additive for all animal speciesEFSA Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP) · EFSA Journal 14(5): 4474 · 2016 · doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2016.4474Government
2. The estimated daily manganese intake of Korean children aged 11-12Bae YJ and Choi MK · Nutrition Research and Practice 5(6): 548-552 · 2011 · doi.org/10.4162/nrp.2011.5.6.548Peer-reviewed
3. Biomarkers of Manganese Exposure in Pregnant Women and Children Living in an Agricultural Community in CaliforniaGunier RB, Mora AM, Smith D, Arora M, Austin C, Eskenazi B, et al. · Environmental Science & Technology 48: 14695-14702 · 2014 · doi.org/10.1021/es503866aPeer-reviewed
4. Cellular manganese content is developmentally regulated in human dopaminergic neuronsKumar KK, Lowe EW Jr, Aboud AA, Neely MD, Redha R, Bauer JA, et al. · Scientific Reports 4: 6801 · 2014 · doi.org/10.1038/srep06801Peer-reviewed
5. Blood and Hair Manganese Concentrations in Pregnant Women from the Infants’ Environmental Health Study (ISA) in Costa RicaMora AM, van Wendel de Joode B, Mergler D, Cordoba L, Cano C, Quesada R, et al. · Environmental Science & Technology 48: 3467-3476 · 2014 · doi.org/10.1021/es404279rPeer-reviewed
6. Changes in Brain Metallome/Metabolome Pattern due to a Single i.v. Injection of Manganese in RatsNeth K, Lucio M, Walker A, Zorn J, Schmitt-Kopplin P, and Michalke B · PLoS ONE 10(9): e0138270 · 2015 · doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0138270Peer-reviewed
7. Variation in groundwater manganese in FinlandKousa A, Komulainen H, Hatakka T, Backman B, and Hartikainen S · Environmental Geochemistry and Health 43: 1193-1211 · 2021 · doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00643-xPeer-reviewed
8. Toxic Effects of Metals (Chapter 23), in Casarett & Doull’s Essentials of Toxicology, Fourth EditionUfelle AC and Barchowsky A · Casarett & Doull’s Essentials of Toxicology, Fourth Edition. McGraw Hill Education · 2021 · www.mhprofessional.comTextbook
9. Associations of Early Childhood Manganese and Lead Coexposure with NeurodevelopmentClaus Henn B, Schnaas L, Ettinger AS, Schwartz J, Lamadrid-Figueroa H, Hernandez-Avila M, et al. · Environmental Health Perspectives 120(1): 126-131 · 2012 · doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1003300Peer-reviewed
10. Study on the Relationship between Manganese Concentrations in Rural Drinking Water and Incidence and Mortality Caused by Cancer in Huai’an CityZhang Q, Pan E, Liu L, Hu W, He Y, Xu Q, et al. · BioMed Research International 2014: 645056 · 2014 · doi.org/10.1155/2014/645056Peer-reviewed
11. Dietary Intake of Manganese in the Japanese Diet and its Association with Cardiometabolic and Cardiovascular DiseasesMiyagawa N · Journal of Atherosclerosis and Thrombosis 29: 1421-1422 · 2022 · doi.org/10.5551/jat.ed196Review
12. Effect of Manganese Exposure on the Reproductive Organs in Immature Female RatsKim SI, Jang YS, Han SH, Choi MJ, Go EH, Cheon YP, et al. · Development & Reproduction 16(4): 295-300 · 2012 · doi.org/10.12717/dr.2012.16.4.295Peer-reviewed
13. Interactions of manganese with iron, zinc, and copper in neonatal C57BL/6J and parkin mice following developmental oral manganese exposureFoster ML, Bartnikas TB, Maresca-Fichter HC, Mercadante C, Dash M, Miller C, et al. · Data in Brief 15: 908-915 · 2017 · doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2017.10.050Peer-reviewed
14. Manganese exposure from spring and well waters in the Shenandoah Valley: interplay of aquifer lithology, soil composition, and redox conditionsHinkle MAG, Ziegler B, Culbertson H, Goldmann C, Croy ME, Willis N, et al. · Environmental Geochemistry and Health 46: 203 · 2024 · doi.org/10.1007/s10653-024-01987-4Peer-reviewed
15. Betel quid chewing as a source of manganese exposure: total daily intake of manganese in a Bangladeshi populationAl-Rmalli SW, Jenkins RO, and Haris PI · BMC Public Health 11: 85 · 2011 · doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-11-85Peer-reviewed
16. Physical, chemical and biological characteristics of clays from Durban (South Africa) for applications in cosmeticsS’busiso M Nkosi and Nokukhanya Thembane · Analytical Science Advances · 2024 · doi.org/10.1002/ansa.202300062Peer-reviewed
17. LABORATORY SCALE ELECTROKINETIC REMEDIATION OF HEXAVALENT CHROMIUM FROM CONTAMINATED SOILM. Khalid, N. Ahmed, and R. M. Qureshi · The Nucleus 45(1–2):55–61 · 2008 · doi.org/10.71330/nucleus.45.01-2.998Peer-reviewed
18. Estimation of manganese daily intake among adults in KoreaKim EY, Bae YJ, Kim SJ, and Choi MK · Nutrition Research and Practice 2(1): 22-25 · 2008 · doi.org/10.4162/nrp.2008.2.1.22Peer-reviewed
19. Analysis of a Wild Leafy Vegetable (Premna latifolia Roxb.) Samples for Essential Trace Elements using ICP - MS TechniqueG. Narayana Murthy and Balarama Swamy Yadav Padala · International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Research 12(2):1–4 · 2024 · doi.org/10.70729/se24205180530Peer-reviewed
20. Application of principal component analysis in the pollution assessment with heavy metals of vegetable food chain in the old mining areasIosif Gergen and Monica Harmanescu · Chemistry Central Journal6:156 · 2012 · doi.org/10.1186/1752-153x-6-156Peer-reviewed
21. Determination of 40 Elements in Powdered Infant Formulas and Related Risk AssessmentMaria Luisa Astolfi, Daniela Marotta, Vittoria Cammalleri, Elisabetta Marconi, Arianna Antonucci, Pasquale Avino, et al. · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · 2021 · doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18105073Peer-reviewed
22. Albumin, copper, manganese and cobalt levels in children suffering from sickle cell anemia at Kasumbalesa, in Democratic Republic of CongoMukuku O, Sungu JK, Mutombo AM, Mawaw PM, Aloni MN, Wembonyama SO, et al. · BMC Hematology 18: 23 · 2018 · doi.org/10.1186/s12878-018-0118-zPeer-reviewed
23. Impact of manganese and heme on biofilm formation of Bacillus cereus food isolatesHussain MS, Kwon M, and Oh DH · PLoS ONE 13(7): e0200958 · 2018 · doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200958Peer-reviewed
24. Association of exposure to synthetic phenols and metal(loid)s with early puberty in Spanish girls: a multicentric case–control studyOlivas-Martinez A, Escribano A, Riaño-Galán I, Torrebias M, Olmedo P, Gil F, et al. · European Journal of Pediatrics 185:295 · 2026 · doi.org/10.1007/s00431-026-06919-1Peer-reviewed
25. Assessment of the Risk of Heavy Metals Accumulation in Vegetable CropsVladimir N. Bashkin and Rosa A. Galiulina · Issues of Risk Analysis 18(4): 48-65 · 2021 · doi.org/10.32686/1812-5220-2021-18-4-48-65Peer-reviewed

Update history

No substantive edit history is available in this build. The full commit record is available in git.