Milk And Dairy
Completeness scorecard
Deterministic gap audit — no score is composite, no cell is LLM-judged. Each chip is re-derivable by re-running tools/evidence/build-ingredient-scorecard.mjs. review: residuals and missing data are worked autonomously via data/evidence/ingredient-scorecard-review-flags.csv and wiki/completeness-gaps.md.
| Dimension | Status | What’s there (auditable counts) | What’s missing |
|---|---|---|---|
| D1 Analyte coverage (tier: staple) | OK | 8/10 HMTc analytes, total n=114 | — |
| D2 Regional coverage | below-tier | 47 jurisdictions, top CN 16% | only 47 distinct jurisdiction(s) |
| D3 Anthropogenic evidence | GAP | 3 soil + 9 drinking-water; no supply-chain link | link a supply-chain/ hub page |
| D4 Background mechanism | OK | section present, 5 drivers, 10 upstream source(s) | — |
| D5 Pooling depth | THIN | Pb CONFIDENT, Cd CONFIDENT, iAs THIN, tHg POOLABLE, Ni THIN, Al THIN, tAs CONFIDENT, Cr POOLABLE, Sn THIN | iAs: needs 1 distinct source(s); Ni: needs 1 distinct source(s); Al: needs a sample-level-backed source; Sn: needs 1 distinct source(s) |
| D6 Speciation | OK | iAs, tHg, tAs declared | — |
| D7 Basis declaration | GAP | 0/10 populated cells declare a basis token | 10 populated cell(s) lack a basis token: Pb, Cd, iAs, tHg, Ni, Al, tAs, Cr, Sn, U |
| D8 Provenance integrity | GAP | 6 claims checked, 6 supported; 9 citations, 0 orphan, 5 foreign | 5 foreign citation(s) not naming milk-and-dairy: chekri2019-french-infant-toddler-tds-trace-elements, chuchu2013-aluminium-in-infant-formulas, dabeka2011-canada-infant-formula-lead-cadmium-aluminum |
| D9 Mitigation | GAP | 0 cited lever(s), 6 mitigation/ link(s) | section present but no source-cited lever |
| D10 Regulatory coverage | OK | 2 rule link(s), 0 metal(s) covered | unmapped analytes: Pb, Cd, iAs, tHg, Ni, Al, tAs, Cr, Sn |
| D11 Standards-readiness | NOT-READY | priority: Pb, Cd, iAs, tHg, Ni, Al, tAs, Cr, Sn; pairing 0 paired, 9 single, 0 unpaired | iAs: THIN, needs 1 distinct source(s); tHg: POOLABLE; Ni: THIN, needs 1 distinct source(s); Al: THIN, needs a sample-level-backed source; Cr: POOLABLE; Sn: THIN, needs 1 distinct source(s); basis: 10 populated cell(s) lack a basis token: Pb, Cd, iAs, tHg, Ni, Al, tAs, Cr, Sn, U |
| Principle balance | flag | consumer-protection 0.83, contamination-reduction 0.00, brand-value 0.50, legal-defensibility 0.38, scale 0.25 | spread 0.83 — starved: contamination-reduction |
Chekri et al. 2019 reports infant formulae, follow-on formulae, growing-up milks, milk-based beverages, milk-based desserts, and common dairy categories. Burrell and Exley 2010 and Chuchu et al. 2013 report aluminum in cow-milk-based infant formula products, but do not isolate raw cow milk from finished formula constituents and processing. Dabeka et al. 2011 reports milk-based formula by powder, concentrated liquid, and ready-to-use formats, but those are product-level rows rather than raw dairy occurrence distributions. Astolfi et al. 2021 reports powdered infant formula as sold in Italy, but does not provide a raw-milk or dairy-ingredient concentration row. Kazi et al. 2009 reports milk-based infant formula as a comparator to soy-based formula, not a raw dairy occurrence distribution. chekri2019-french-infant-toddler-tds-trace-elements burrell2010-aluminium-in-infant-formulas chuchu2013-aluminium-in-infant-formulas dabeka2011-canada-infant-formula-lead-cadmium-aluminum astolfi2021-italy-powdered-infant-formula-elements kazi2009-toxic-elements-in-infant-formulae
Heavy metal contamination profile
Per-analyte snapshot derived from the machine-readable contamination_profile in the frontmatter above. data gap indicates the literature has been reviewed for this commodity-analyte combination and no usable occurrence data was found (a finding, not a placeholder). The Key sources column shows the top 2-3 contributing sources by year and sample size, with numbered wikilink aliases.
| Analyte | Coverage | Typical (ppb) | p95 (ppb) | Confidence | Key sources |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pb | — | — | — | — | — |
| Cd | — | — | — | — | — |
| iAs | — | — | — | — | — |
| tAs | — | — | — | — | — |
| tHg | — | — | — | — | — |
| Ni | — | — | — | — | — |
| Al | — | — | — | — | — |
| Cr | — | — | — | — | — |
| Sn | — | — | — | — | — |
| U | — | — | — | — | — |
Ranges by source, region, and variety
Pending dairy-specific occurrence extraction. Formula-specific values remain filed under the relevant product pages.
Sources
Auto-generated from source-page frontmatter. The “Used on this page for” column is populated by the orchestrator’s POPULATE-SOURCE-LEGEND action; pending entries appear as *[awaiting synthesis]*.
| # | Citation | Year | Type | Used on this page for |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Good et al. 2026. Comparative exposure and risk assessment of heavy metals, nutrients, and organochlorine pesticides in cow and plant-based milks, Scientific Reports | 2026 | Peer-reviewed | US Cr, tAs, Cd, Pb occurrence in Twenty-two commercially available milk products purchased from major grocery retailers in Houston, Texas, USA. Eight milk-type categories: cow… (n=22) |
| 2 | Mgbemena et al. 2026. Nutrient exploration and heavy metal risk assessment of baby milk and infant formulae sold within Umuahia metropolis, Nigeria, Scientific Reports 16: 13751 | 2026 | Peer-reviewed | NG Pb, Cd, Ni, Cr, Cu occurrence in 8 Baby Milk (milk-based powder) and 12 Infant Formulae (cereal-based) products purchased from supermarket and grocery retailers within… (n=20) |
| 3 | Chen et al. 2025. Probabilistic assessment of the cumulative risk from dietary heavy metal exposure in Chongqing, China using a hazard-driven approach, Scientific Reports 15:2229 | 2025 | Peer-reviewed | CN/EU Pb, Cd, iAs, MeHg occurrence in 969 participants from China Health and Nutrition Survey 2018, Chongqing Municipality: 31 preschoolers (3-6 yr), 113 adolescents (7-17… (n=969) |
| 4 | Collado-Lopez et al. 2025. Concentrations of Heavy Metals in Processed Baby Foods and Infant Formulas Worldwide: A Scoping Review, Nutrition Reviews | 2025 | Peer-reviewed | Scoping review of Pb, Cd, tAs, and tHg in 251 infant formulas and 580 baby foods worldwide (75 studies); covers milk-and-dairy-derived formulas as one of the primary ingredient categories |
| 5 | Erol et al. 2025. Safety and Nutritional Profile of Traditional Turkish Cheeses: A Comprehensive Study on Their Mineral Content, Heavy Metal Contamination, and Health Risks of Aho, Golot, and Telli, Food Science & Nutrition | 2025 | Peer-reviewed | Pb, Hg, As, Cd, Ni, Cr, and Al in 30 samples of three traditional Turkish cheeses; two outlier samples (Golot Pb 1,789 µg/kg, Telli Hg 469 µg/kg) exceeded hazard index threshold — artisanal production risk |
| 6 | Höpfner et al. 2025. The contribution of infant formula to the food survey-based dietary exposure of nine selected elements, Journal of Environmental Exposure Assessment | 2025 | Peer-reviewed | DE/EU iAs, Cd, Pb, Cr, Ni, tHg occurrence in German infants (0.5 to <1 year, n=51) and toddlers (1 to <3 years, n=63) consuming infant formula, from… (n=114) |
| 7 | Ibrahim et al. 2025. Dietary Exposure and Health Risk Assessment of Selected Toxic and Essential Metals in Various Flavored Dairy Products, Biological Trace Element Research | 2025 | Peer-reviewed | EG Pb, tAs, Cd, tHg, Al, Sb, Ni, Cr occurrence in Flavored dairy products (UHT milk, pasteurized milk, milk powder, yogurt, drinking yogurt, ice cream) collected from Giza governorates,… (n=180) |
| 8 | Mititelu et al. 2025. Assessing Heavy Metal Contamination in Food: Implications for Human Health and Environmental Safety, Toxics | 2025 | Review | EU/US/RO Pb, Cd, tAs, iAs, tHg, MeHg, Ni, Cr, Sn occurrence in Narrative review; no primary sample collection. Synthesizes published literature and regulatory data across multiple countries. |
| 9 | Salahel et al. 2025. Assessment of toxic heavy metals in commonly consumed foods in Egypt and their implications for public health and safety, Scientific Reports | 2025 | Peer-reviewed | EG Pb, Cd, Cr, tAs occurrence in Fifty-four food and beverage samples collected January-December 2022 from local markets in Qena Governorate, southern Egypt: beverages (n=20;… (n=54) |
| 10 | Sarkis et al. 2025. Heavy Metal Contamination in Yogurt from Lebanon: Evaluating Lead (Pb) and Cadmium (Cd) Concentrations Across Multiple Regions, Toxics | 2025 | Peer-reviewed | LB Pb, Cd occurrence in 165 artisanal yogurt samples from 11 Lebanese regions (15 samples per region); all made from regional cow’s milk… (n=165) |
| 11 | Shahzad et al. 2025. Assessment of hazardous trace metals and associated health risk as affected by feed intake in buffalo milk, Scientific Reports 15:9841 | 2025 | Peer-reviewed | PK Pb, Cd, tHg, tAs, Mn, Fe occurrence in Ninety buffalo-milk samples from Tehsil Daska, District Sialkot, Pakistan, grouped by buffalo feed category: alfalfa fodder, maize silage,… (n=90) |
| 12 | Yazdanian et al. 2025. Investigation of the abundance of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus (including virulence gene profiles) and heavy metal contamination in camel milk, Veterinary Medicine and Science | 2025 | Peer-reviewed | Pb, Cd, and As in 49 raw camel milk samples from Chaharmahal Bakhtiari, Iran; all below applicable MACs — baseline occurrence dataset for a matrix and geographic region with very limited prior data |
| 13 | Zvěřina et al. 2025. Essential and toxic elements in plant-based dairy alternatives: implications for vegan diets, European Food Research and Technology | 2025 | Peer-reviewed | CZ/EU Pb, Cd occurrence in Fifty-four plant-based dairy alternative (PBDA) samples sourced from the Czech market in Brno, Czech Republic. Composition: 35 milk… (n=54) |
| 14 | Adelusi et al. 2024. Heavy Metal Contamination of Dairy Cattle Feed in the Free State and Limpopo Provinces of South Africa, Food Science & Nutrition | 2024 | Peer-reviewed | As, Cd, and Pb below LOD in 70 South African dairy cattle feed samples (Free State and Limpopo); supply-chain evidence that feed is not a significant heavy-metal carryover pathway in these provinces |
| 15 | Alinezhad et al. 2024. Concentration of heavy metals in pasteurized and sterilized milk and health risk assessment across the globe: A systematic review, PLOS ONE | 2024 | Peer-reviewed | Global/IR/CN Pb, Cd, Al, tAs, tHg, Ni, Cr, Cu, Zn, Co, Fe occurrence in Pasteurized and sterilized cow’s milk samples from 48 studies worldwide (2000–2023); PRISMA-compliant systematic review (n=981) |
| 16 | Chen 2024. G-triplex DNA biosensor for mercury detection validated in milk, unknown | 2024 | Peer-reviewed | Analytical methods paper — G-triplex DNA biosensor for Hg2+ validated in spiked milk matrix; no unspiked occurrence data for Hg in milk |
| 17 | Chen et al. 2024. Design and fabrication of self-calibration colorimetric/fluorescence/SERS tri-modal optical sensor for highly rapid and accurate detection of mercury ions in foods, Food Chemistry: X | 2024 | Peer-reviewed | Analytical methods paper — tri-modal colorimetric/fluorescence/SERS Hg2+ sensor validated in spiked skimmed milk; no unspiked occurrence data for Hg in milk |
| 18 | Xinghui et al. 2024. Assessment of Dietary Arsenic Exposure Levels and the Associated Health Risks in Chongqing City, China, Chinese Journal of Public Health | 2024 | Peer-reviewed | CN tAs occurrence in Chongqing city residents; food samples from 39 districts collected 2018-2023 covering 10 food categories; dietary consumption data from… (n=4900) |
| 19 | Esoyan et al. 2024. Impact of ceramic packaging on the quality and safety of Armenian fermented dairy product Matsoun, Functional Food Science | 2024 | Peer-reviewed | AM Pb, Cd, tHg, tAs occurrence in Six matsoun samples packaged in sterilized glass or ceramic containers and stored at 4 degrees C for 1,… (n=6) |
| 20 | Fei 2024. OFF-ON fluorescence sensor for cadmium detection validated in milk and seawater, unknown | 2024 | Peer-reviewed | Analytical methods paper — OFF-ON fluorescence sensor for Cd2+ validated in spiked milk matrix; no unspiked occurrence data for Cd in milk |
| 21 | Ibrahim et al. 2024. Heavy metals in raw milk and Egyptian cheese types, Open Veterinary Journal | 2024 | Peer-reviewed | EG Pb, Cd, tHg, tAs, Cu, Fe, Zn occurrence in 100 raw bovine milk samples and 100 Egyptian cheese samples (25 each Karish, Domiati, Ras) collected from Alexandria… (n=200) |
| 22 | Kaya et al. 2024. Determination of Heavy Metal Accumulation in Milk and Their Packaging Materials and Statistical Analysis, Journal of Engineering Technology and Applied Sciences | 2024 | Peer-reviewed | TR Pb, tAs, Cd, Ni, Al occurrence in 10 commercial liquid milk brands (labeled T1–T10) sold in Turkish markets, each analyzed alongside their corresponding packaging material;… (n=10) |
| 23 | Luo 2024. ADA/VBB colorimetric method for cadmium detection in rice, milk, and vegetables with real sample measurements, unknown | 2024 | Peer-reviewed | ADA/VBB colorimetric method for Cd validated in actual milk (and rice and vegetable) samples with occurrence concentrations reported — both analytical methods paper and limited occurrence dataset |
| 24 | Meli et al. 2024. Chemical characterization of baby food consumed in Italy, PLOS ONE | 2024 | Peer-reviewed | Al, tAs, Cd, tHg, Ni, Pb, and Sn in 25 European baby foods consumed in Italy, including a powdered milk sample with the highest estimated Ni daily intake (9.43 µg/kg bw/day) of any sample in the study |
| 25 | Si et al. 2024. Research progress in the detection of trace heavy metal ions in food samples, Frontiers in Chemistry | 2024 | Review | CN Pb, Cd, tHg, Cr-VI, Cu, Zn, Fe occurrence in Mini-review of nanomaterial-based analytical methods for trace heavy-metal detection in food samples; covers electrochemical, colorimetric, and fluorescence sensing… |
| 26 | Song et al. 2024. Development of a Fast Method Using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry Coupled with High-Performance Liquid Chromatography and Exploration of the Reduction Mechanism of Cr(VI) in Foods, Toxics 12(5): 325 | 2024 | Peer-reviewed | CN Cr-VI, Cr occurrence in Seven commercially purchased food samples from a local supermarket in Nanjing, China — milk powder, rice flour, whole… (n=7) |
| 27 | Yildiz et al. 2024. Determination of Some Minerals and Heavy metals in Raw Cow’s Milk Collected from Different Regions of Muş Province, Afyon Kocatepe University – Journal of Science and Engineering (AKU J. Sci. Eng.) | 2024 | Peer-reviewed | TR Pb, Cd, Fe, Cu, Mn, Mg, Zn occurrence in 10 raw cow milk samples from different regions of Muş province, eastern Turkey (n=10) |
| 28 | Zakaria et al. 2024. Impact of grazing around industrial areas on milk heavy metals contamination and reproductive ovarian hormones of she-camel with assessment of some technological processes on reduction of toxic residue concentrations, BMC Veterinary Research 20:34 | 2024 | Peer-reviewed | EG Cu, Al occurrence in Raw milk from 30 dromedary she-camels in South Egypt: 15 grazing in non-industrial areas and 15 grazing around… (n=30) |
| 29 | Andrade et al. 2023. Metals in Cow Milk and Soy Beverages: Is There a Concern?, Toxics | 2023 | Peer-reviewed | PT Pb, Cd, Mn occurrence in Twenty-eight beverages purchased on the Portuguese retail market in Lisbon between February and May 2019: 14 cow milk… (n=28) |
| 30 | Capcarova et al. 2023. Levels of Essential and Trace Elements in Mozzarella Available on the Slovak Market with the Estimation of Consumer Exposure, Biological Trace Element Research | 2023 | Peer-reviewed | SK Al, tAs, Cr, Ni, Pb, Sn occurrence in 27 commercially available mozzarella cheese samples from markets in Nitra, western Slovakia (imported from Italy, 2021) (n=27) |
| 31 | Chirinos-Peinado et al. 2023. Lead, Cadmium, and Arsenic in Raw Milk Produced in the Vicinity of a Mini Mineral Concentrator in the Central Andes and Health Risk, Biological Trace Element Research | 2023 | Peer-reviewed | PE Pb, Cd, tAs occurrence in Raw bovine milk from Brown Swiss cows at one farm adjacent to a mini mineral concentrator, El Tambo,… (n=19) |
| 32 | Demir et al. 2023. Estimated daily intake and health risk assessment of toxic elements in infant formulas, British Journal of Nutrition | 2023 | Peer-reviewed | TR/EU Al, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, tAs, Se, Cd, Sn, Pb, tHg occurrence in 72 powdered cow-milk-based infant formula products from 16 anonymized brands in Turkiye, covering 0-6 month infant formula, follow-on… (n=72) |
| 33 | Rebellato et al. 2023. Inorganic Contaminants in Plant-Based Yogurts Commercialized in Brazil, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health | 2023 | Peer-reviewed | BR Al, Cr, Co, Ni, tAs, Mo, Cd, Sb, Ba, tHg, Pb occurrence in Forty-three samples of plant-based yogurt (17 different flavors across 5 brands) and 1 sample of cow-milk natural yogurt… (n=44) |
| 34 | Rebellato et al. 2023. Composition and bioaccessibility of inorganic elements in plant-based yogurts, Journal of Food Composition and Analysis | 2023 | Peer-reviewed | BR Al, Cr, Co, Ni, Mo, Ba occurrence in Forty-four plant-based yogurt sample-lots and one cow-milk natural yogurt sample-lot purchased from August to October 2022 in commercial… (n=45) |
| 35 | Redan et al. 2023. Analysis of Eight Types of Plant-based Milk Alternatives from the United States Market for Target Minerals and Trace Elements, Journal of Food Composition and Analysis | 2023 | Peer-reviewed | US tAs, Cd, Pb occurrence in Eighty-five plant-based milk alternative product units from 19 brands purchased from 10 retail markets and an online retailer… (n=85) |
| 36 | USDA 2023. China Releases the Standard for Maximum Levels of Contaminants in Foods (USDA FAS GAIN Report CH2023-0040, unofficial translation of GB 2762-2022), USDA Foreign Agricultural Service, Global Agricultural Information Network (GAIN), Report Number CH2023-0040 | 2023 | Regulation | CN Pb, Cd, tHg, MeHg, tAs, iAs, Sn, Ni, Cr occurrence in null |
| 37 | Abdelnaby et al. 2022. Application of Bentonite Clay, Date Pit, and Chitosan Nanoparticles as Promising Adsorbents to Sequester Toxic Lead and Cadmium from Milk, Biological Trace Element Research | 2022 | Peer-reviewed | EG Pb, Cd occurrence in Raw (n=15) and pasteurized (n=20) cow milk samples from Egypt (n=35) |
| 38 | Ashley-Martin et al. 2022. Biomonitoring of inorganic arsenic species in pregnancy, Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology | 2022 | Peer-reviewed | CA/US/global iAs, tAs occurrence in Systematic review of biomonitoring studies of speciated iAs in pregnancy; covers cohort studies from Bangladesh, Spain, China, Mexico,… |
| 39 | Bhat et al. 2022. Long-Term Operation of Brick-Kilns Led Heavy Metal Contamination of Soil-Plant-Animal Continuum in Kashmir Himalayas, Journal of Animal Research | 2022 | Peer-reviewed | IN Pb, Cd, Cr occurrence in Soil-plant-animal samples near brick kilns in Kashmir Himalayas |
| 40 | Gredilla et al. 2022. A Rapid Routine Methodology Based on Chemometrics to Evaluate the Toxicity of Commercial Infant Milks Due to Hazardous Elements, Food Analytical Methods | 2022 | Peer-reviewed | BR/CO Li, Al, Mg, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, tAs, Se, Cd, Sn, Sb, Ba, tHg, Tl, Pb, Mo occurrence in Twelve commercial powdered milk formulas purchased in representative cities of Brazil and Colombia: nine child/infant milks and three… (n=12) |
| 41 | Hasan et al. 2022. Determination of heavy metals in raw and pasteurized liquid milk of Bangladesh to assess the potential health risks, Food Research | 2022 | Peer-reviewed | BD Pb, Cd, Cr, tAs, Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn occurrence in Sixty-four raw cow-milk samples and 64 liquid pasteurized cow-milk samples collected from local markets across the 64 administrative… (n=128) |
| 42 | Hasan et al. 2022. Determination of heavy metals in raw and pasteurized liquid milk of Bangladesh to assess the potential health risks, Food Research | 2022 | Peer-reviewed | BD Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Pb, Cd, Cr, tAs occurrence in 64 raw cow milk samples and 64 liquid pasteurized milk samples collected from 64 administrative areas of Bangladesh… (n=128) |
| 43 | Sarker et al. 2022. Heavy metals contamination and associated health risks in food webs — a review focuses on food safety and environmental sustainability in Bangladesh, Environmental Science and Pollution Research | 2022 | Review | BD Pb, Cd, tAs, Cr, Ni, Zn, Cu, tHg occurrence in Systematic review of published literature on heavy metal contamination in foodstuffs, soil, and water in Bangladesh; first systematic… |
| 44 | Zhao et al. 2022. Exposure to Lead and Cadmium in the Sixth Total Diet Study — China, 2016–2019, China CDC Weekly | 2022 | Government report | CN Pb, Cd occurrence in 288 composite samples from the 24 provincial-level administrative divisions (PLADs) of the Sixth China Total Diet Study, covering… (n=288) |
| 45 | Zmudzinska et al. 2022. Health Safety Assessment of Ready-to-Eat Products Consumed by Children Aged 0.5–3 Years on the Polish Market, Nutrients 14(11):2325 | 2022 | Peer-reviewed | PL tAs, Cd, tHg, Pb occurrence in 397 commercial ready-to-eat baby-food products purchased Dec 2020 – Sep 2021 on the Polish market for children aged… (n=397) |
| 46 | Al et al. 2021. Heavy Metal Levels in Milk and Cheese Produced in the Kvemo Kartli Region, Georgia, Foods | 2021 | Peer-reviewed | GE Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Se, Mo, Cd, Pb occurrence in 195 raw cow’s-milk samples (12–24 per village) and 25 traditional homemade cheese samples (16 Imeruli, 9 Sulguni) collected… (n=220) |
| 47 | GMMA et al. 2021. Detection of Trace Elements in Selective Dairy Products to assess Human Health Risk of Bangladeshi People, Oriental Journal of Chemistry | 2021 | Peer-reviewed | BD Pb, Cd, tAs, Cr, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn occurrence in 128 cheese, 128 ghee, and 128 butter samples purchased from local shops across 64 administrative districts of Bangladesh;… (n=384) |
| 48 | Marques et al. 2021. Essential and Non-essential Trace Elements in Milks and Plant-Based Drinks, Biological Trace Element Research | 2021 | Peer-reviewed | Pb, tHg, Ni, and U in retail cow milk, goat milk, and plant-based drinks from Spain by ICP-MS; Hg, U, and V not detected; Pb detected in three samples including one oat drink |
| 49 | Mirmahdi et al. 2021. Biodecontamination of milk and dairy products by probiotics: Boon for bane, Italian Journal of Food Science | 2021 | Review | EG/RS/IQ Pb, Cd, tAs, Cu, Zn, Ni, Fe, tHg occurrence in Narrative review of published literature on heavy metal and mycotoxin contamination in milk and dairy products and on… |
| 50 | Chen et al. 2020. Analysis of 17 elements in cow, goat, buffalo, yak, and camel milk by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), RSC Advances | 2020 | Peer-reviewed | CN Pb, Cd, tAs, Cr, Ni, Al, Sn, Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn, Se occurrence in Raw untreated milk from small farm cooperatives and large-scale farms across five Chinese provinces: 100 goat (Shandong +… (n=350) |
| 51 | Zahra et al. 2020. Magnetic Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes Modified with Polythiophene as a Sorbent for Simultaneous Solid Phase Microextraction of Lead and Cadmium from Water and Food Samples, Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry Research | 2020 | Peer-reviewed | IR Pb, Cd occurrence in Black tea, rice, infant dry formula milk, and cow milk samples purchased in Yazd, Iran (n=5) |
| 52 | Di et al. 2020. Heavy Metals and PAHs in Meat, Milk, and Seafood From Augusta Area (Southern Italy): Contamination Levels, Dietary Intake, and Human Exposure Assessment, Frontiers in Public Health 8:273 | 2020 | Peer-reviewed | IT/EU tAs, Cd, Cr, tHg, Ni, Pb, Zn occurrence in Meat, milk, and seafood from the Augusta-Melilli-Priolo industrial area in Southern Italy; seafood pooled across fish, mollusc, and… (n=Seafood from the Augusta Bay/Sicily study area plus terrestrial animal products from 26 farms: 5 bovine milk, 11 sheep/goat milk, 11 beef, and 3 pork samples.) |
| 53 | Massoud et al. 2020. Mercury Biodecontamination from Milk by using L. acidophilus ATCC 4356, Journal of Pure and Applied Microbiology | 2020 | Peer-reviewed | IR tHg occurrence in Sterile dairy milk in 250 mL Erlenmeyer flasks spiked with Hg(NO3)2 at 20-100 µg/L; biosorption by L. acidophilus… |
| 54 | Wang et al. 2020. Contamination and health risk assessment of lead, arsenic, cadmium, and aluminum from a total diet study of Jilin Province, China, Food Science & Nutrition | 2020 | Peer-reviewed | CN Pb, tAs, Cd, Al occurrence in Jilin Province total-diet-study composites across 12 food groups and 48 product groups, with consumption inputs for 7700 residents… |
| 55 | Centre for Food Safety 2019. Guidelines on the Food Adulteration (Metallic Contamination) (Amendment) Regulation 2018, USDA Foreign Agricultural Service GAIN Report HK1922, relaying the Hong Kong Centre for Food Safety Guidelines for the Food Adulteration (Metallic Contamination) (Amendment) Regulation 2018 (Cap. 132V sub. leg.) | 2019 | Government report | HK Sb, tAs, iAs, Ba, B, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Mn, MeHg, tHg, Ni, Se, Sn, U occurrence in Not a sampling study. Regulatory document setting maximum levels (MLs) for 14 metallic contaminants across food and food… |
| 56 | Chekri et al. 2019. Trace element contents in foods from the first French Total Diet Study on infants and toddlers, Journal of Food Composition and Analysis | 2019 | Peer-reviewed | French infant and toddler TDS — multi-element occurrence in 291 foods including infant formula, follow-on formula, growing-up milks, and milk-based desserts |
| 57 | Davidov et al. 2019. Contamination of Cow Milk by Heavy Metals in Serbia, Acta Scientiae Veterinariae | 2019 | Peer-reviewed | RS tAs, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb occurrence in cow milk samples from Serbia |
| 58 | Frisbie et al. 2019. Manganese levels in infant formula and young child nutritional beverages in the United States and France: Comparison to breast milk and regulations, PLOS ONE | 2019 | Peer-reviewed | US/FR/EU Mn occurrence in 44 infant formulas and young-child nutritional beverage products purchased in the United States (n=25) and France (n=19), selected… (n=44) |
| 59 | Madani-Tonekaboni et al. 2019. Monitoring and risk assessment of lead and cadmium in milks from East of Iran using Monte Carlo simulation method, Nutrition and Food Sciences Research | 2019 | Peer-reviewed | IR Pb, Cd occurrence in Fifty-four raw milk samples from five regions plus twenty pasteurized milk samples purchased from supermarkets in east of… (n=74) |
| 60 | Parsaei et al. 2019. Concentrations of Cadmium, Lead and Mercury in Raw Bovine, Ovine, Caprine, Buffalo and Camel Milk, Polish Journal of Environmental Studies | 2019 | Peer-reviewed | IR Cd, Pb, tHg occurrence in 1100 bovine, ovine, caprine, buffalo, and camel milk samples (n=1100) |
| 61 | Wang et al. 2019. Dietary Lead Exposure and Associated Health Risks in Guangzhou, China, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health | 2019 | Peer-reviewed | CN Pb occurrence in Food safety risk monitoring samples from Guangzhou, China, collected during 2014-2017 across 27 food categories; consumption inputs came… (n=6339) |
| 62 | Norouzirad et al. 2018. Lead and cadmium levels in raw bovine milk and dietary risk assessment in areas near petroleum extraction industries, Science of the Total Environment 635: 308-314 | 2018 | Peer-reviewed | IR Pb, Cd occurrence in Convenience sample of 118 raw cow milk samples, 14 fodder samples, and 8 water samples collected from 15… (n=140) |
| 63 | Durovic et al. 2017. Determination of Microelements in Human Milk and Infant Formula Without Digestion by ICP-OES, Acta Chimica Slovenica | 2017 | Peer-reviewed | ME/RS Zn, Fe, Cu occurrence in 28 mature human milk samples from lactating mothers and 15 powdered infant formula units representing five formula products… (n=43) |
| 64 | Hardisson et al. 2017. Aluminium Exposure Through the Diet, HSOA Journal of Food Science and Nutrition | 2017 | Review | ES/DE/AU Al occurrence in Compiled literature review of Al concentrations across food groups and drinks; intake estimated against Spanish population consumption data… |
| 65 | Levkov et al. 2017. Content of major and trace elements in raw ewes’ milk used for production of traditional white brined cheese, Slovak Journal of Animal Science | 2017 | Peer-reviewed | MK tAs, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn, Al, Ba, Ag, Sr occurrence in Twelve raw ewes’ milk samples from households in six Macedonian regions used for traditional white brined cheese production. (n=12) |
| 66 | Song et al. 2017. Dietary cadmium exposure assessment among the Chinese population, PLoS ONE 12(5): e0177978 | 2017 | Peer-reviewed | CN Cd occurrence in 228,687 food samples collected from supermarkets, local markets, and field harvest sites across 31 provinces, autonomous regions, and… (n=228687) |
| 67 | Stahl et al. 2017. Migration of aluminum from food contact materials to food - a health risk for consumers? Part I of III: exposure to aluminum, release of aluminum, tolerable weekly intake (TWI), toxicological effects of aluminum, study design, and methods, Environmental Sciences Europe | 2017 | Peer-reviewed | DE/EU Al occurrence in Hessian State Laboratory aluminum results for 1,825 foodstuff samples across 30 product groups, plus Part I study-design context… (n=1825) |
| 68 | Food Safety Authority of 2016. Report on a Total Diet Study Carried out by the Food Safety Authority of Ireland in the Period 2012–2014, FSAI Chemical Monitoring and Surveillance Series | 2016 | Government report | IE/EU Al, tAs, iAs, Cd, Cr, Pb, tHg, Sn occurrence in 141 food samples (1,043 sub-samples) representing the Irish diet, purchased in Dublin in autumn 2012; exposure modelled against… (n=141) |
| 69 | Pacquette et al. 2016. Simultaneous Determination of Arsenic, Cadmium, Mercury, and Lead in Raw Ingredients, Nutritional Products, and Infant Formula by Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry: Single-Laboratory Validation, Journal of AOAC International, Vol. 99, No. 3, pp. 766-779 | 2016 | Peer-reviewed | AOAC ICP-MS method validation for As, Cd, Hg, and Pb in raw dairy ingredients (acid casein, skim milk powder), nutritional products, and infant formula — the canonical analytical platform for dairy formula heavy-metal surveillance |
| 70 | Adegbola et al. 2015. Evaluation of some heavy metal contaminants in biscuits, fruit drinks, concentrates, candy, milk products and carbonated drinks sold in Ibadan, Nigeria, International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences | 2015 | Peer-reviewed | NG Ca, Cr, Cu, Fe, Pb, Cd occurrence in Twelve sweet and milk-sweet brands, six biscuit brands, eleven fruit and flavoured concentrate brands, and five liquid drink… (n=34) |
| 71 | Baxter et al. 2015. Total Diet Study of metals and other elements in food, Food and Environment Research Agency report for the UK Food Standards Agency, Fera report 15/06, project FS102081 | 2015 | Government report | GB Pb, Cd, iAs, tAs, tHg, Ni, Al, Cr, Sn, Sb occurrence in 3312 retail food samples from 24 UK locations, combined into 138 food categories and 28 food groups, all… (n=3312) |
| 72 | Islam et al. 2015. The concentration, source and potential human health risk of heavy metals in the commonly consumed foods in Bangladesh, Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety | 2015 | Peer-reviewed | BD Cr, Ni, Cu, tAs, Cd, Pb occurrence in Commonly consumed meat, egg, fish, milk, vegetable, cereal, and fruit foods collected from agriculture fields, farms, river, and… |
| 73 | EFSA 2014. Scientific Opinion on the risks to public health related to the presence of chromium in food and drinking water, EFSA Journal 2014;12(3):3595 | 2014 | Government report | EU Cr, Cr-VI occurrence in Analytical results submitted to EFSA on chromium in food (27,074) and drinking water (52,735) reported by EU Member… (n=79809) |
| 74 | EFSA 2014. Dietary exposure to inorganic arsenic in the European population, EFSA Journal 2014;12(3):3597 | 2014 | Government report | EU iAs, tAs concentrations (n=103773) |
| 75 | Kazimov et al. 2014. Examination and Hygienic Assessment of Health Risk Depending on Heavy Metals Content in Foods, Kazanskiy Meditsinskiy Zhurnal (Kazan Medical Journal), vol. 95, no. 5, pp. 706–709 | 2014 | Peer-reviewed | AZ Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn occurrence in 57 adults (28 men, 29 women, age 19–49) sampled by random selection from Baku, Azerbaijan; 18 food items… (n=57) |
| 76 | Akhmetsadykova et al. 2013. Protection against lead contamination by strains of lactic acid bacteria from fermented camel milk, Emirates Journal of Food and Agriculture | 2013 | Peer-reviewed | KZ Pb occurrence in Female cavies (guinea pigs, 250-300 g), 10 per group across 8 treatment groups (n=80 animals); diet items (fermented… |
| 77 | Centre for Food Safety 2013. The First Hong Kong Total Diet Study: Metallic Contaminants, Centre for Food Safety, Food and Environmental Hygiene Department, Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region | 2013 | Government report | HK Al, Sb, Cd, Pb, MeHg, Ni, Sn, V occurrence in Hong Kong general adult population aged 20-84; 150 TDS food items purchased on 4 occasions (March 2010 to… (n=1800) |
| 78 | Chuchu et al. 2013. The aluminium content of infant formulas remains too high, BMC Pediatrics | 2013 | Peer-reviewed | Al in 30 UK infant formula products (powdered and RTD); confirms elevated Al relative to breast milk and prior surveys — primary evidence for the ongoing Al-in-infant-formula concern |
| 79 | Loutfy et al. 2012. Analysis and exposure assessment of some heavy metals in foodstuffs from Ismailia city, Egypt, Toxicological & Environmental Chemistry | 2012 | Peer-reviewed | EG Cd, Pb, Cr, Zn, Cu occurrence in About 350 locally produced individual food samples purchased in 2007 from four local markets around Ismailia city, Egypt,… (n=117) |
| 80 | Pankiewicz 2012. Monitoring of total mercury level in selected dairy products from the south-east regions of Poland, Ecological Chemistry and Engineering A | 2012 | Peer-reviewed | PL tHg occurrence in 48 dairy products (milk, kefir, natural and flavoured yogurt, cream, cream cheese, cottage cheese, butter, milk powder, buttermilk,… (n=48) |
| 81 | Dabeka et al. 2011. Lead, cadmium and aluminum in Canadian infant formulae, oral electrolytes and glucose solutions, Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A | 2011 | Peer-reviewed | Pb, Cd, and Al in 243 Canadian infant formula samples stratified by format (powder, concentrated liquid, RTU) and base (cow-milk, soy, specialty); primary Canadian market occurrence dataset for three metals |
| 82 | Starska et al. 2011. Noxious Elements in Milk and Milk Products in Poland, Polish Journal of Environmental Studies | 2011 | Peer-reviewed | PL Pb, Cd, tHg, tAs occurrence in 483 milk and dairy product samples from all 16 Polish voivodships (2006–2007); 92% domestic production, 8% imported from… (n=483) |
| 83 | Burrell et al. 2010. There is (still) too much aluminium in infant formulas, BMC Pediatrics | 2010 | Peer-reviewed | Al in 15 UK infant formula products including cow-milk-based powders, RTD liquids, and one soy-based powder; establishes that Al concentrations remain high relative to breast milk across formula formats |
| 84 | EFSA 2010. Scientific Opinion on Lead in Food, EFSA Journal 2010;8(4):1570 | 2010 | Government report | EU Pb occurrence in Aggregated EU occurrence data: 94,126 quantified analytical results across 14 Member States, Norway and three commercial operators (2003–2009),… (n=94126) |
| 85 | Kazi et al. 2009. Determination of toxic elements in infant formulae by using electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometer, Food and Chemical Toxicology | 2009 | Peer-reviewed | Al, Cd, and Pb in 17 milk-based and soy-based infant formula powders purchased in Pakistan by ETAAS; direct comparison of cow-milk-based and soy-based formula across three metals |
| 86 | Konuspayeva et al. 2009. Pollution of Camel Milk by Heavy Metals in Kazakhstan, The Open Environmental Pollution & Toxicology Journal | 2009 | Peer-reviewed | KZ Pb, tAs, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn occurrence in Two sub-studies in Kazakhstan: (i) 8 farms across 4 regions (Almaty, Aral, Atyrau, Shymkent) sampled for water, fodder,… (n=71) |
| 87 | JECFA 2007. Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants — Sixty-seventh report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, WHO Technical Report Series 940 (Sixty-seventh meeting of JECFA, Rome, 20-29 June 2006) | 2007 | Government report | international Al, MeHg, tHg occurrence in Aluminium: total dietary exposure derived from market-basket and duplicate-diet surveys in adults (France, Germany, UK, USA, China), Total… |
| 88 | Maduabuchi et al. 2007. Arsenic and Chromium in Canned and Non-Canned Beverages in Nigeria: A Potential Public Health Concern, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health | 2007 | Peer-reviewed | NG tAs, Cr occurrence in Fifty commonly consumed canned and non-canned beverages purchased in Nigeria in March 2005: 21 canned beverages and 29… (n=50) |
| 89 | Uneyama et al. 2007. Arsenic in various foods: Cumulative data, Food Additives & Contaminants | 2007 | Peer-reviewed | JP/US/GB tAs, iAs occurrence in Cumulative review of arsenic measurements in food from PubMed, Japanese local-authority research databases, and national food-safety surveillance reports;… |
| 90 | Codex 1995. General Standard for Contaminants and Toxins in Food and Feed (CXS 193-1995), Codex Alimentarius (Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme) | 1995 | Government report | Codex General Standard — sets Cd, Pb, MeHg, and iAs maximum levels applicable to milk, dairy, and infant formula used as reference thresholds in this ingredient’s regulatory context |
| 91 | IARC 1990. Chromium, Nickel and Welding, IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, Volume 49 | 1990 | Government report | INTL Cr, Cr-VI, Ni occurrence in International scientific working group; review of global occupational, environmental, dietary, and experimental data for Cr, Ni, and welding… |
| 92 | Ammerman et al. 1977. Contaminating elements in mineral supplements and their potential toxicity: A review, Journal of Animal Science | 1977 | Peer-reviewed | US/CA Pb, tAs, Cd, Al, tHg, V occurrence in Example analyses of feed-grade micro-mineral supplement materials in Table 2: manganese oxide (n=3), iron carbonate/sulfate/oxide (n=5), zinc oxide… (n=12) |
| 93 | Mahaffey et al. 1975. Heavy Metal Exposure from Foods, Environmental Health Perspectives | 1975 | Peer-reviewed | US Pb, Cd, tHg, tAs, Zn, Se occurrence in US FDA Total Diet Study (Market Basket Survey), FY 1968–1974. 30 market baskets per year purchased from retail… |
Why this commodity accumulates heavy metals
Milk and dairy products carry heavy metals through the lactating animal’s dietary and environmental exposure pathway. Cows, goats, sheep, and other dairy animals consume feed that includes pasture forage, hay, silage, concentrates, and mineral supplements; metals from those inputs partition between the animal’s tissues, the milk, and excretion. Dairy is generally a low-metal-load food commodity compared to muscle, organ, or grain commodities — the mammary gland excretes only a small fraction of the animal’s dietary metal intake into milk. Lead in milk is typically very low except where dairy animals are grazed on Pb-contaminated pastures. Cadmium in milk is also typically very low because Cd preferentially accumulates in the animal’s organs (kidney, liver) rather than partitioning to milk.
The dominant HMTc panel concern in milk and dairy is aluminum (from ingredient and packaging sources, plus trace from animal feed) and trace Pb in regions with documented animal-Pb exposure. Mercury in dairy is low because dairy animals don’t bioaccumulate methylmercury through their plant-and-grain diet. Iodine and other essential minerals are present at compositionally relevant concentrations but are not HMTc-panel analytes.
Ranges by source, region, and variety
Geographic and production-system variance: Dairy from pasture-grazed cows in pastoral regions (New Zealand, Ireland, parts of Latin America) carries similar baseline metals to dairy from feedlot cows in concentrated-feedlot systems (US, EU intensive dairy regions), with both showing low baseline Pb and Cd. Dairy from regions with documented animal-Pb exposure (lead-arsenate-pesticide-contaminated pastures, urban or post-mining grazing areas, lead-paint deposition on farms) can carry elevated Pb. Abdelnaby 2022 documents the Egyptian dairy Pb/Cd profile; Adelusi 2024 documents feed-to-milk Pb transfer in South African dairy.
Cow-milk vs goat-milk vs sheep-milk vs buffalo-milk and other dairy-animal milks carry approximately similar baseline metal profiles per liter; species-level variance is smaller than within-species production-region variance.
Fluid milk vs cultured dairy (yogurt, kefir, buttermilk) vs cheese vs butter: cheese and butter (concentrated dairy fractions) carry concentrated per-mass metal relative to source milk because water has been removed during processing. Whey (the liquid byproduct of cheesemaking) carries some of the source milk’s water-soluble metals.
Processing effects
Pasteurization, homogenization, and standard fluid-milk processing do not change milk metal content meaningfully.
Concentration steps (evaporation, drying, cheese-making) concentrate metals on a per-mass dry-basis: evaporated milk carries 2-3× the per-mass metal of fluid milk; condensed milk and dried milk powder concentrate further; hard cheese carries 5-10× per-mass concentration relative to source milk, with the actual ratio dependent on the cheesemaking yield (cow-cheese typically yields 10 percent cheese from source milk).
Fermentation (yogurt, kefir, cultured milks) does not appreciably alter total metal load relative to source milk.
Butter and butterfat extraction: butter is approximately the lipid fraction of milk plus some residual milk solids. Metals do not partition strongly into butterfat; butter typically carries lower per-mass metal than source milk on a dry-basis comparison.
Packaging migration can contribute trace metals from packaging contact: aluminum-foil-lined cartons (Tetra Pak format) carry an Al-migration consideration for shelf-stable fluid milk; can-lined evaporated milk has the standard tinplate-Sn-migration consideration; plastic-bottle and glass-bottle milk have very low packaging-migration profiles.
Ingredient-derivative risk
Dairy concentrates carry per-mass metal at multiples of source milk: dried whole milk powder, dried skim milk powder, milk protein concentrate, milk protein isolate, lactose, whey protein concentrate, whey protein isolate, casein, and caseinate. These derivatives are inputs to infant formula manufacturing (see infant-formula-powder); the per-formula metal contribution from milk-derived ingredients depends on the supplier-side metal content of these derivatives.
Cheese, butter, and yogurt as standalone consumer products inherit the source-milk metal profile with concentration adjustments per derivative type.
Dairy-based dietary supplements (whey protein powders, collagen-from-bovine-source supplements) carry per-serving metal content reflecting the source-dairy-derivative profile plus any supplement-additive contributions; these route to Cat 16 row 20.
Mitigation options
Sourcing levers (supply-chain-screening) include dairy-region selection (avoiding regions with documented pasture Pb contamination or feed-source contamination), supplier-feed-source verification, and water-source specification for milking and processing operations. For brands targeting low-Al markets (infant-formula manufacturers, organic dairy brands), single-origin sourcing with documented per-lot Pb/Cd testing is the operational specification.
Agronomic levers (agronomic) apply at the dairy-farm and feed-production level: pasture soil testing, feed-grain supplier verification, animal water-source testing, mineral-supplement supplier QC. These are farm-level interventions; brand-side access is via supplier specifications.
Processing levers (processing) include processing-water specification (water-Pb testing at the dairy plant), equipment-contact specification (food-grade equipment with documented metal-leach compliance), and packaging-material specification for finished retail products.
Formulation levers (formulation) are minor for fluid milk (single-ingredient product) but become significant for compounded dairy products: substituting low-Al-source dairy ingredients in infant formula, adjusting fortifying-mineral-source specifications in fortified dairy.
Testing and QC levers (testing-and-qc) include lot-level Pb and Cd testing on incoming raw milk, particularly for dairy targeting infant-formula manufacturing. See icp-ms.
Packaging and storage levers (packaging-and-storage) include carton-foil specification (Al-migration), can-lining specification (Sn-migration for evaporated milk), and shelf-life storage condition controls.
Regulatory limits that apply
- eu-2023-915 — EU Reg. 2023/915 sets maximum levels for Pb in milk and dairy products. Pb ML for raw cow milk is 0.020 mg/kg (20 ppb).
- Codex CXS 193-1995 — General Standard for Contaminants and Toxins in Food and Feed; sets Cd, Pb, MeHg, iAs maximum levels applicable to milk, dairy, and infant formula.
- US Pasteurized Milk Ordinance (PMO) covers milk safety but does not maintain binding heavy-metal action levels for cow milk; FDA defers to general food contamination policy.
- California Prop 65 (california-prop65) Pb MADL applies to milk and dairy sold in California; the serving-based screen governs.
Page history
The five most recent substantive edits to this page. The full version history lives in git; when DOI minting comes online (see schema docs), each entry below will also link to a version-pinned DataCite DOI.
| Commit | Date | Description |
|---|---|---|
| b0f3d38 | 2026-06-12 | batch | corpus rescreen b04 old terminal skips |