Chromium (Cr)

This page draws on evidence from EFSA, together with 27 peer-reviewed studies and 5 other cited sources. The complete citation list is at the bottom of the page.

Overview

Chromium (atomic number 24) in the food system is a split case. Trivalent chromium has an ambiguous history as a putative essential trace element and is the species in most dietary supplements. Hexavalent chromium is a carcinogen by inhalation and has documented toxicity by ingestion, including in drinking water; its relevance to food is principally via drinking-water used in food preparation, via meat processing with certain contact materials, and via supply-chain contamination. The wiki maintains the species distinction where the source permits, and flags ambiguity where a source reports total chromium without specifying.

This page covers chromium as element and the trivalent species by default, plus chromium speciation discipline. The hexavalent species has a dedicated page at Chromium, Hexavalent because hexavalent chromium is a priority heavy-metal analyte whose toxicology, occurrence, regulatory, and testing posture all differ sharply from trivalent chromium. Sources that report total chromium without speciating route here as total-chromium occurrence context and must not be silently substituted for hexavalent chromium.

A toxicology textbook chapter supports the trivalent/hexavalent chromium distinction at the toxicology level, including hexavalent chromium absorption through sulfate/phosphate transporters, corrosive injury, allergic contact dermatitis, acute renal injury after high-dose ingestion, and lung-cancer/genotoxicity framing for hexavalent chromium 2; see Chromium, Hexavalent for the species-specific synthesis.

EFSA does not regard an essential role for chromium as established. The EFSA nutrition panel has concluded that an essential function of trivalent chromium in metabolism has not been substantiated, that no average requirement or population reference intake can be defined, and that, with no evidence of benefit in healthy people, setting an adequate intake was not appropriate 1. The Food Safety Commission of Japan treats chromium in food as trivalent, on the reasoning that any hexavalent chromium in food would be reduced by the food’s chemical reactivity, and therefore estimated hexavalent chromium intake from mineral water and tap water only 3. EFSA likewise describes food as generally a reducing medium in which oxidation of trivalent to hexavalent chromium is not expected 1.

Toxicology

Hexavalent chromium by mouth

The Food Safety Commission of Japan identified damage to the small intestine and anemia as the major toxicities of hexavalent chromium in experimental animals, with diffuse hyperplasia of the duodenal mucosal epithelium in mice as the finding at the lowest LOAEL 3. Hexavalent chromium in drinking water significantly increased small-intestine tumors in mice and oral mucosa and tongue tumors in rats, and the commission considered it carcinogenic 3. Results were positive in many in vitro genotoxicity tests and in vivo after parenteral dosing, but not clearly positive after oral dosing; transgenic rodent mutation assays found no significant rise in mutant frequency in target tissues after 28 days (rats) or 90 days (mice) of drinking-water exposure, and the commission judged that the carcinogenic mechanism by drinking water was hardly attributable to genotoxicity 3. Absorption after oral dosing is low: swallowed hexavalent chromium is reduced to trivalent chromium slightly by saliva and mainly by gastric juice 3.

In female B6C3F1 mice given about 180 ppm hexavalent chromium in drinking water for 28 days, all exposed animals showed villous enterocyte hypertrophy and mild crypt epithelial hyperplasia in the duodenum, and after a further 28 days without exposure the duodenum was generally indistinguishable from that of unexposed mice 4. That study was funded by an industry chemistry council panel on hexavalent chromium, and it tested a single high dose 4.

In male rats given sodium dichromate dihydrate at 520 mg/L in drinking water (stated as 182 mg/L hexavalent chromium) for 3 months, serum urea and creatinine rose, chromium accumulated in blood and kidney, kidney malondialdehyde rose, and catalase activity and glutathione fell, with widespread tubular and glomerular damage; co-treatment with Spirulina platensis reduced these changes 5.

Trivalent chromium

EFSA’s contaminants panel derived a tolerable daily intake of 300 µg of trivalent chromium per kg body weight per day from the NOAEL of a two-year oral rat study in which no adverse effects were seen at the highest dose, applying an uncertainty factor of 1,000 that included an extra factor of 10 for missing reproductive and developmental data 1.

At very high intakes, trivalent chromium accumulates in tissues and interacts with other minerals. Female rats fed a chromium(III) propionate complex at 100 to 1,000 mg chromium per kg of diet (stated as 10 to 100 mg per kg body mass per day) for 4 weeks showed dose-dependent rises in liver chromium, from 2.96 to 17.88 µg/g dry mass, and kidney chromium, from 1.69 to 27.74 µg/g dry mass 6. The two highest doses lowered serum iron and liver and kidney iron, and high doses altered copper, zinc and calcium status 6.

Low chromium intake

In a rat model, a maternal diet with 65% less chromium (0.51 versus 1.56 mg per kg of diet) for 12 weeks before mating lowered dam plasma chromium from 1.18 to 0.648 µg/L, and offspring had higher body weight, body fat and central adiposity from 12 months of age; moving the dams or pups to the control diet restored circulating lipids and adipocytokines but not adiposity 7. This is an animal deficiency model and does not establish a human requirement.

Typical exposure routes

Food and drinking water

EFSA restates European chronic dietary exposure to trivalent chromium from its 2014 contaminants assessment as means of 0.6 to 5.9 µg/kg body weight per day and 95th percentiles of 1.1 to 7.9 µg/kg body weight per day, excluding infants and toddlers 1. For hexavalent chromium, the Food Safety Commission of Japan estimated intake from mineral water and tap water at a mean of about 0.04 and a high value of 0.290 µg/kg body weight per day 3.

Soil and crop uptake

Arzew industrial soils had chromium mean 51.17 mg/kg, median 45.36 mg/kg and range 11.33 to 193.36 mg/kg (N=14). The aqua-regia/ICP-AES method did not resolve oxidation state. Source risk calculations cannot convert these elemental results into hexavalent chromium measurements (Table 2; Methods 2.3) 8.

Rice seedlings exposed to trivalent chromium retained chromium in roots and surface iron plaques. Synchrotron speciation distinguished ferrihydrite-bound from organic-associated trivalent chromium, with different proportions in root tips and mature zones; the study concerns an upstream uptake mechanism rather than grain contamination. Supports chromium uptake and iron-plaque pathway evidence. Hotspot spectral fractions are not bulk rice-grain species fractions and cannot substitute for a hexavalent chromium food result. Release of plaque-bound chromium during dissolution qualifies any assumption of permanent sequestration 9.

Household dust near chromate waste

In 329 residents of homes next to chromate production waste sites in Hudson County, New Jersey, household dust had a median chromium concentration of 119.0 µg/g (146.5 µg/g in homes of children under 10), and spot urine had a median of 0.27 µg/L 10. Urinary chromium was significantly related to dust chromium concentration, but not to dust loading, and the relationship remained in the final models for the whole population and for children under 10 but not for residents over 10, which the authors read as young children’s exposure to dust driving the overall association 10. The measurements were of total chromium, although hexavalent chromium was present at the waste sites 10.

Work and medical devices

Boys aged 10 to 14 working in surgical instrument workshops in Sialkot, Pakistan, had a geometric mean urinary chromium of 23.0 µg/L, about 35 times that of schoolboys from the same city (0.66 µg/L), and one raw instrument sampled from a workshop contained 12.5% chromium 11.

Fixed orthodontic appliances release chromium into saliva. In 30 patients aged 10 to 25 in Bengaluru, mean salivary chromium was 69.15 ppb before treatment, 102.68 ppb after initial alignment and 87.67 ppb after 10 to 12 months, with large variation between patients 12.

Orally taken medicinal liquids

Oral medicinal and vitamin liquids can carry measurable total chromium. Of 34 pediatric syrups made in Nigeria and sold in Awka in 2007 to 2008, 9 had detectable chromium, from 0.01 to 0.58 mg/L, while only 1 of 16 imported syrups did (0.01 mg/L) 13. Six thyme-herb liquid products from Polish pharmacies contained 2.0 to 6.0 µg/L total chromium, giving estimated intakes of 40.30 to 181.41 ng per day at labeled use; several reported values sat below the method’s stated limit of quantitation 14.

Food sources

Measured results in foods and orally taken products

Meat

Chromium species were measured by HPLC-ICP-MS in chicken breast bought at an Ottawa grocery store. In control meat, trivalent chromium was 2.76 to 3.38 ng/g and hexavalent chromium 11.5 to 14.3 ng/g, and adding oat protein hydrolysates lowered hexavalent chromium and raised trivalent chromium 15. The paper prints the same figures in µg/g in its abstract, reports no detection limits or reference material for the chromium species, and its finding that the hexavalent form predominated in raw chicken contrasts with the regulatory assumption that food chromium is trivalent 15 3.

Supplements and enriched ingredients

A chromium-enriched yeast biomass proposed for dietary supplements contained 19.3 to 22.8 µg of chromium per gram in five production lots, identified as trivalent chromium, with about half of it water-soluble (50.2%), 43.9% polysaccharide-bound and 4.3% protein-bound 1. At the proposed use of 2 g per day for children aged 3 to 9 and 4 g per day thereafter, it would supply 46 and 92 µg of chromium per day; added to high background dietary intake, EFSA estimated totals of 9.9, 6.9 and 3.9 µg/kg body weight per day for children, adolescents and adults, which are 3.3%, 2.3% and 1.3% of the trivalent chromium tolerable daily intake 1.

Crops, vegetables and botanicals

A Nahavand Plain farm study measured total chromium by ICP-AES in environmental and whole-biomass samples. Chromium was not speciated, so subsequent risk-model inputs cannot turn the occurrence measurements into hexavalent chromium data. Whole aerial biomass also cannot substitute for isolated edible grain or root tissue (Methods pp4 to 5; Tables 6 to 9) 16.

Abubakar and colleagues measured seven metals in sewage water, soil, spinach and cauliflower at two peri-urban sites in Faisalabad, Pakistan. The paper reports substantial differences between the two crop/site combinations, but its design does not separate plant-species effects from location. Concentrations are retained with the source’s measurement and tissue limitations. These are localized paired environmental and crop measurements, with plant results routed as leafy-tissue evidence. They do not establish a cauliflower-head concentration, a fresh-weight concentration, or a causal reduction in biomass from metal exposure. Industrial source attribution is proposed by the authors, rather than measured by a source-apportionment experiment 17.

Joseph and colleagues measured seven metals in kenaf, chili pepper, tomato and spinach plant parts, with associated soil and irrigation water from Gobbiya Dam in Nigeria. The paper separates edible leaves or fruits from roots and stems. Its concentration tables are preserved independently of several inconsistent safety comparisons and a soil-index calculation that uses water standards. The organ-resolved dry-weight values support local occurrence and irrigation-pathway analysis. Roots, stems and non-edible leaves are retained as pathway context rather than assigned to edible-product distributions. Broad leafy-vegetable and herb/spice ingredient routes retain kenaf and chili identity in the structured record without substituting a named cultivar 18.

This Sri Lankan study compares elemental concentrations and simulated digestive release in two leafy vegetables across five growing areas. Raw, coconut-milk-cooked and coconut-oil-stir-fried portions were tested separately; lower in-vitro release does not establish lower human absorption or safe consumption. Supports region-specific leafy-vegetable occurrence and cooking/bioaccessibility comparisons. Processing effects are not uniform: for example Wellampitiya A. sessilis gastric lead is 15.3% raw and 20.7% cooked. Coconut additions can change the matrix; an in-vitro endpoint is not in-vivo absorption 19. These studies bear on leafy vegetables.

Dyakova compares nine elements in medicinal plant materials collected in disturbed and control environments in Russia’s Voronezh region during 2015 to 2020. The reported ranges preserve tissue and environmental setting; the paper also proposes regional background means across species. Supports geographic and tissue-specific contamination evidence for botanical raw materials and environmental attribution hypotheses. It does not measure finished supplements or isolate an individual polluter’s causal contribution 20. This evidence relates to herbal botanicals.

Chocolate

Two anonymous chocolate products from Bwari market contained measurable nickel, iron, copper, chromium and lead. Their reported sample concentrations are preserved independently of inconsistent dispersion, intake means and safety comparisons in the paper. Provides a small local occurrence observation with anonymous products. It cannot establish market prevalence, source attribution, or a no-risk conclusion. Total chromium is not hexavalent chromium 21. See chocolate.

Fish and river water

Maurya et al. measured unspeciated chromium in Ganga water and freshwater-fish tissues. River-water means were 0.32 mg/L at Kanpur, 0.85 at Allahabad, 0.36 at Mirzapur and 0.45 at Varanasi (Table 3). Fish-table basis and exposure-model units are internally inconsistent. None of these measurements identifies hexavalent chromium or validates a species-specific health-risk estimate 22. See freshwater fish.

In the Biała Przemsza River in industrial Upper Silesia, Poland, monthly sampling at five points in 2014 found trivalent chromium medians of 1.74 to 2.51 µg/L and hexavalent chromium maxima of 0.93 to 1.19 µg/L, with hexavalent medians below the 0.37 µg/L detection limit at three points; on average trivalent chromium was two to three times the hexavalent form 23. This is surface water, not treated drinking water.

Animal feed and pet food

Texas mineral feed products had unspeciated chromium mean 40.43 mg/kg, SD 87.48 and median 9.3 (N=124; Table 3). Beef-cattle feed had mean 4.91 mg/kg and SD 3.92 (N=160). These heterogeneous feed categories and zero-substituted summaries do not measure hexavalent chromium, human-food concentrations or clinical outcomes 24.

A 2024 preprint reports chromium in all 93 pet-food products, mean 3.47 mg/kg and range 0.48 to 15.47 mg/kg (Table 3). The assay did not speciate chromium. Source-modeled hazard indices cannot turn those results into measured hexavalent chromium, and the later publication represents the same sample cohort 25.

Regulatory limits

Regulatory limits track the species split. The enforceable thresholds that name hexavalent chromium specifically are California’s drinking-water Maximum Contaminant Level of 10 µg/L (California — Maximum Contaminant Level for Hexavalent Chromium in Drinking Water) and California’s Proposition 65 listing and safe-harbor levels (California Proposition 65 — Hexavalent Chromium Listing and Safe-Harbor Levels); both are covered on the Chromium, Hexavalent page. Total-chromium drinking-water MCLs (US EPA 100 µg/L, California 50 µg/L) apply to chromium as element and do not separate the hexavalent fraction.

Health-based guidance values

The Food Safety Commission of Japan set its tolerable daily intake for hexavalent chromium in connection with an amendment of beverage standards by the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, and concluded that the risk of health effects from current exposure through mineral water and tap water is extremely low because estimated intakes were below that value 3. EFSA has not set dietary reference values for chromium 1.

For oral medicinal products, one pharmacy survey compared estimated daily chromium intake with the ICH Q3D oral permitted daily exposure for chromium, which the paper prints inconsistently as 10,700 µg/day in the text and 10,700 mg/day in the abstract 14. For occupational biomonitoring, the Sialkot study compared children’s urinary chromium with an adult occupational biological exposure index of 25 µg/L 11.

The papers cited on this page do not establish maximum levels for chromium in specific foods.

Testing

Speciation matters because total chromium results cannot be read as hexavalent chromium. HPLC coupled to ICP-MS separated trivalent and hexavalent chromium in river water with detection limits of 0.19 and 0.37 µg/L and validation recoveries of 99% and 102% 23. Size-exclusion HPLC/ICP-MS of a water extract and a simulated digestate identified the chromium in an enriched yeast ingredient as trivalent, with no hexavalent peak 1. In chicken meat, an ion-pair HPLC-ICP-MS method detected both species at mass 52 after enzymatic extraction, but the paper gives no detection limit or recovery for chromium 15. Hexavalent chromium dosing solutions in a mouse study were verified by EPA method SW-846 7196A with a detection limit of 0.04 ppm 4.

Total-chromium methods in the cited papers include electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry with a certified lichen reference material (recovery 97.81%, LOD 1.65 µg/L, LOQ 4.95 µg/L) for herbal liquids 14; atomic absorption for syrups, rat tissues (graphite furnace, with a tobacco-leaf reference material) and urine (standard additions) 13 6 10; ICP-MS for urine and saliva 11 12; and ICP emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) for serum and bone 26 27. Several clinical papers report no detection limit or reference material for chromium, which limits comparison between them. Method detail for chromium is collected at chromium methods.

Microbiome effects

None of the human, animal or food studies cited on this page measured gut microbiome outcomes. The only microbial evidence here concerns soil bacteria and crop uptake:

Bashkin and Galiulina review vegetable-associated metal exposure assessment and microbial/agronomic risk-management approaches. Chinese and Russian case-study values are secondary reports; they remain traceable to the cited studies and are not counted as new independent occurrence samples. Supports exposure-method and remediation literature discovery. Bacterial effects can increase as well as decrease uptake depending on organism, metal and plant; the review does not establish a universal inoculant intervention. Secondary model outputs are not contemporary health or certification thresholds 28.

A separate wiki synthesis on chromium and the gut is at chromium gut axis; it is not built from the papers cited here.

Vulnerable populations

Children

Child workers in surgical instrument manufacturing in Sialkot had urinary chromium about 35 times that of schoolchildren, above the adult occupational biological exposure index the authors cite 11. Near chromate waste sites in New Jersey, the association between household dust chromium and urinary chromium held for children under 10 but not for older residents 10. Pediatric syrups made in Nigeria contained detectable chromium more often than imported ones 13.

Clinical chromium status data in children are sparse and methodologically weak. In 30 Bulgarian children under 3 with iron-deficiency anaemia, mean serum chromium was 0.83 µmol/L by a spectrophotometric method, and 73% were below the cited reference range; healthy controls were not tested for chromium 29. In Ugandan children aged 2 to 10, with and without HIV, mean plasma chromium was 1 µg/L and the authors judged it sufficient, in a conference abstract with incomplete statistics 30.

Pregnancy

Pregnant women with gestational diabetes in Chennai had lower serum chromium (1.59 ng/mL, n = 30) than matched pregnant controls (4.58 ng/mL, n = 60) 26. This is an association in a small case-control study, not evidence of cause. In rats, maternal chromium restriction increased offspring adiposity 7.

Kidney disease and implants

In 37 hip-surgery patients in north-western Poland, mean chromium was 0.45 mg/kg dry mass in cartilage and 0.66 mg/kg in cortical and spongy bone, and bone chromium was lower in the five patients with kidney disease (0.28 versus 0.46 mg/kg) 27. The same paper’s statements on implants and game meat conflict between its abstract and its results 27. Patients with fixed orthodontic appliances had higher salivary chromium during treatment than before it 12.

Mitigation

Soil and sludge remediation

One Nilore, Islamabad soil sample characterization reported bulk chromium of 28.15 µg/g, with wet/dry basis unstated (Table 2). The source subsequently included that native total-chromium value in a calculation labelled hexavalent chromium removal; its oxidation state was not established 31.

A chromium special-issue editorial provides secondary environmental and remediation context. Its crustal-background comparator is not a measured site concentration or legal limit, and its summarized fish values require the underlying study before primary occurrence reuse (p1780) 32.

Column washing of Bangalore-area industrial sludge removed substantially more metals with hydrochloric acid plus EDTA than with distilled water. This is a remediation experiment relevant to sludge contamination pathways, with no measurements in food or a demonstrated safe land-application endpoint. Supports laboratory washing and contaminant-transport comparisons. Metal-rich leachate still requires management; the study does not establish agricultural reuse or field-scale safety 33.

Food processing

In a laboratory test, adding oat protein hydrolysates to ground chicken breast lowered hexavalent chromium and raised trivalent chromium, both immediately and after 24 hours of storage at 4 or -20 degrees C, an effect the authors attribute partly to thiol groups 15. This was not tested as a commercial process. Cooking effects on metal release from leafy vegetables are discussed under Food sources.

The cited papers do not establish a validated processing step that lowers total chromium in food.

Open questions

• The papers cited on this page provide no maximum levels for chromium in specific foods, and no speciated survey of hexavalent chromium across a national food supply.
• Whether hexavalent chromium can persist in raw meat, as one chicken-breast analysis reported, needs confirmation with validated speciation methods, detection limits and recovery data.
• Current drinking-water intake estimates for hexavalent chromium come from Japan only; the cited papers give no comparable estimates for other countries.
• Human relevance of rodent intestinal findings at high drinking-water doses, and whether those lesions reverse after long exposure, remain open; the recovery evidence covers 28 days of exposure.
• Clinical chromium status studies in children and pregnancy rely on small samples and methods without reported quality control; a validated biomarker and reference range are not established by the cited papers.
• No cited paper measured chromium effects on the human gut microbiome.
• Validated processing or cooking steps that lower chromium in foods are not established.
• Chromium in orally taken medicines and supplements is documented only for small product sets in Nigeria (2007 to 2008) and Poland.

Frequently asked questions

What remains uncertain

Most of the measurements on this page are of total chromium. Only three cited studies separate trivalent from hexavalent chromium, and they cover one retail chicken purchase, one enriched yeast ingredient and one Polish river. Regulatory bodies assume that chromium in food is trivalent, but the cited speciation evidence in food is too thin to test that assumption.

The toxicology rests largely on rodent studies at high drinking-water doses, plus two health-based guidance values that differ by species: a tolerable daily intake for hexavalent chromium from Japan and one for trivalent chromium from EFSA. Several clinical and product studies have internal inconsistencies in units or group results, noted in their source records, so their numbers should be read as indicative rather than definitive.

References

Works cited in this page’s text, in first-appearance order. See Sources for this page’s source inventory. Each title links to a source record with bibliographic details, reported findings, and document provenance.

1. Safety of chromium-enriched biomass of Yarrowia lipolytica as a novel food pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283EFSA NDA Panel, Turck D, Castenmiller J, De Henauw S, Hirsch-Ernst KI, Kearney J, et al. · EFSA Journal 18(3): 6005 · 2020 · doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2020.6005Government
2. Toxic Effects of Metals (Chapter 23), in Casarett & Doull’s Essentials of Toxicology, Fourth EditionUfelle AC and Barchowsky A · Casarett & Doull’s Essentials of Toxicology, Fourth Edition. McGraw Hill Education · 2021 · www.mhprofessional.comTextbook
3. Hexavalent chromium (Contaminants)Food Safety Commission of Japan · Food Safety 7(2): 56-57 · 2019 · doi.org/10.14252/foodsafetyfscj.d-1900002Government
4. Comparison of Toxicity and Recovery in the Duodenum of B6C3F1 Mice Following Treatment with Intestinal Carcinogens Captan, Folpet, and Hexavalent ChromiumThompson CM, Wolf JC, McCoy A, Suh M, Proctor DM, Kirman CR, et al. · Toxicologic Pathology 45(8): 1091-1101 · 2017 · doi.org/10.1177/0192623317742324Peer-reviewed
5. The Remedial Efficacy of Spirulina platensis versus Chromium-Induced Nephrotoxicity in Male Sprague-Dawley RatsElshazly MO, Abd El-Rahman SS, Morgan AM, and Ali ME · PLoS ONE 10(6): e0126780 · 2015 · doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0126780Peer-reviewed
6. The Effects of Supplementary Cr3 (Chromium(III) Propionate Complex) on the Mineral Status in Healthy Female RatsStaniek H and Krejpcio Z · Biological Trace Element Research 180: 90-99 · 2017 · doi.org/10.1007/s12011-017-0985-3Peer-reviewed
7. Chronic Maternal Dietary Chromium Restriction Modulates Visceral Adiposity: Probable Underlying MechanismsPadmavathi IJN, Rao KR, Venu L, Ganeshan M, Kumar KA, Rao CN, et al. · Diabetes 59(1): 98-104 · 2010 · doi.org/10.2337/db09-0779Peer-reviewed
8. Spatial contamination and health risks of heavy metal(loid)s in surface soils from a petrochemical complex in the north-eastern region of AlgeriaHayat Boudia, Laurent Vassalo, Mohammed Hadjel, Pascale Prudent, and Jean-Luc Boudenne · International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology 16:4707–4718; HAL author-manuscript version read · 2019 · doi.org/10.1007/s13762-018-02195-1Peer-reviewed
9. Speciation and distribution of chromium (III) in rice root tip and mature zone: The significant impact of root exudation and iron plaque on chromium bioavailabilityPeiman Zandi, Xing Xia, Jianjun Yang, Jin Liu, Laurent Remusat, Cornelia Rumpel, et al. · Journal of Hazardous Materials 448:130992 · 2023 · doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.130992Peer-reviewed
10. The association of chromium in household dust with urinary chromium in residences adjacent to chromate production waste sitesStern AH, Fagliano JA, Savrin JE, Freeman NCG, and Lioy PJ · Environmental Health Perspectives 106(12): 833-839 · 1998 · doi.org/10.1289/ehp.106-1533240Peer-reviewed
11. Adverse health effects of child labor: high exposure to chromium and oxidative DNA damage in children manufacturing surgical instrumentsSughis M, Nawrot TS, Haufroid V, and Nemery B · Environmental Health Perspectives 120(10): 1469-1474 · 2012 · doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1104678Peer-reviewed
12. Evaluation of Nickel and Chromium Ion Release During Fixed Orthodontic Treatment Using Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometer: An In Vivo StudyNayak RS, Khanna B, Pasha A, Vinay K, Narayan A, and Chaitra K · Journal of International Oral Health 7(8): 14-20 · 2015 · pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.govPeer-reviewed
13. Heavy Metal Hazards of Pediatric Syrup Administration in Nigeria: A Look at Chromium, Nickel and ManganeseNduka JK and Orisakwe OE · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 6(7): 1972-1979 · 2009 · doi.org/10.3390/ijerph6071972Peer-reviewed
14. The Comprehensive Toxicological Assessment of Total Chromium Impurities in Traditional Herbal Medicinal Product with Thymi herba (Thymus vulgaris L. and Thymus zygis L.) Available in Pharmacies in Poland: Short CommunicationJurowski K, Fołta M, Tatar B, and Krośniak M · Biological Trace Element Research 200: 2983-2988 · 2022 · doi.org/10.1007/s12011-021-02864-2Peer-reviewed
15. Chromium and arsenic speciation analysis in meats by HPLC-ICP-MS in the presence of hydrolyzed oat proteins with radical scavenging activitiesShittu A, Esfandi R, and Tsopmo A · Heliyon 6: e03654 · 2020 · doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03654Peer-reviewed
16. Soil–water–crop pathways of heavy metal contamination and human health risks in intensive smallholder farms of the Nahavand Plain, IranSaeed Sharafi, Maryam Sharafi, and Maryam Lorvand · Scientific Reports 16:9947 · 2026 · doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-38637-xPeer-reviewed
17. Effects of sewage water irrigation on heavy metals accumulation in vegetables in peri-urban areas of Faisalabad, PakistanMuhammad Abubakar, Basit Haider, Hadeeqa Arshad, Tufail Shah, Ameer Khan, Hummera Nawaz, et al. · Agricultural Research Reports 3(1):46–57 · 2025 · doi.org/10.54219/arr.03.1.2025.418Peer-reviewed
18. Assessment of the Level of Heavy Metals in Irrigation Water, Farm Soil, and Vegetables Grown in Gobbiya Dam, Bogoro Local Government Area Bauchi State, NigeriaJohn Joseph, Toma Buba, Jalo Enoch, and Ayuba Kaluri · Journal of Energy Technology and Environment 7(4):79–92 · 2025 · doi.org/10.37933/jete/7.4.2025.2568Peer-reviewed
19. Bioaccessibility of Heavy Metals in Raw and Processed Alternanthera sessilis and Centella asiatica: An In vitro StudyThilini Kananke, Jagath Wansapala, and Anil Gunarathne · Nature Environment and Pollution Technology25(1):D1830 · 2026 · doi.org/10.46488/nept.2026.v25i01.d1830Peer-reviewed
20. Study of Peculiarities of Accumulation of Heavy Metals and Arsenic in Medicinal Plant Raw Materials of Synanthropic Flora of Voronezh RegionNina Alekseevna Dyakova · Khimiya Rastitel’nogo Syr’ya 2:163–170 · 2023 · doi.org/10.14258/jcprm.20230211725Peer-reviewed
21. Levels of heavy metals concentrations in chocolates from Bwari market Abuja FCT, NigeriaEmmanuel Joy Enogbe and Agbaghare Daniel Enajeme · International Journal of Adulteration9:e2ijad3057 · 2025 · doi.org/10.54905/disssi.v9i10.e2ijad3057Peer-reviewed
22. Bioaccumulation and potential sources of heavy metal contamination in fish species in River Ganga basin: Possible human health risks evaluationPradip Kumar Maurya, D. S. Malik, Krishna Kumar Yadav, Amit Kumar, Sandeep Kumar, and Hesam Kamyab · Toxicology Reports 6:472–481 · 2019 · doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2019.05.012Peer-reviewed
23. Antimony, Arsenic and Chromium Speciation Studies in Biała Przemsza River (Upper Silesia, Poland) Water by HPLC-ICP-MSJabłońska-Czapla M · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 12(5): 4739-4757 · 2015 · doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120504739Peer-reviewed
24. Heavy Metal Contamination of Animal Feed in TexasSusie Y. Dai, Ben Jones, Kyung-Min Lee, Wei Li, Lynn Post, and Timothy J. Herrman · Journal of Regulatory Science4(1):21–32 · 2016 · doi.org/10.21423/jrs-v04n01p021Peer-reviewed
25. Individual and Combined Contamination of the Heavy Metals in Commercial Cat and Dog FoodJiaying Du, Kerui Zhou, Han Jiang, Shen Hu, Wei Zhang, Qiang Zheng, et al. · Research Square, version1, posted8September2024 · 2024 · doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4838876/v1Preprint
26. Serum chromium levels in gestational diabetes mellitusSundararaman PG, Sridhar GR, Sujatha V, and Anita V · Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism 16(Suppl 1): S70-S73 · 2012 · doi.org/10.4103/2230-8210.94266Peer-reviewed
27. Influence of Environmental Factors and Relationships between Vanadium, Chromium, and Calcium in Human BoneLanocha-Arendarczyk N, Kosik-Bogacka DI, Kalisinska E, Sokolowski S, Kolodziej L, Budis H, et al. · BioMed Research International 2016: 8340425 · 2016 · doi.org/10.1155/2016/8340425Peer-reviewed
28. Assessment of the Risk of Heavy Metals Accumulation in Vegetable CropsVladimir N. Bashkin and Rosa A. Galiulina · Issues of Risk Analysis 18(4): 48-65 · 2021 · doi.org/10.32686/1812-5220-2021-18-4-48-65Peer-reviewed
29. Trace Element Status (Iron, Zinc, Copper, Chromium, Cobalt, and Nickel) in Iron-Deficiency Anaemia of Children under 3 YearsAngelova MG, Petkova-Marinova TV, Pogorielov MV, Loboda AN, Nedkova-Kolarova VN, and Bozhinova AN · Anemia 2014: 718089 · 2014 · doi.org/10.1155/2014/718089Peer-reviewed
30. 2528. Inflammation and Plasma Selenium and Chromium in Ugandan Children Living with HIVDirajlal-Fargo S, Sattar A, Shan L, Bowman E, Nazzinda R, Musiime V, et al. · Open Forum Infectious Diseases 6(Suppl 2): S879 · 2019 · doi.org/10.1093/ofid/ofz360.2206Conference
31. LABORATORY SCALE ELECTROKINETIC REMEDIATION OF HEXAVALENT CHROMIUM FROM CONTAMINATED SOILM. Khalid, N. Ahmed, and R. M. Qureshi · The Nucleus 45(1–2):55–61 · 2008 · doi.org/10.71330/nucleus.45.01-2.998Peer-reviewed
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