Heavy metals in Infant Formula Powder

Overview

This page brings together evidence on powdered infant formula from sources that do not distinguish non-soy from soy-based products. For formulation-specific findings, see non-soy powdered formula and soy-based powdered formula.

Reading guide

Legal, regulatory and retailer teams can use the cited measurements, applicable limits and study limitations to assess the evidence for this category.

Quality teams can examine product form, measurement basis and sources of variation. Journalists and researchers can follow each reference to the original findings and methods.

Related tools and pages: Lab Result Comparator

Scope and comparability

The evidence here applies to powdered formula broadly. It cannot establish a concentration distribution for either non-soy or soy-based formula without confirming the formulation, measurement basis, and statistic reported by each source.

Supporting evidence and scope

Broader-scope sources for this row will be listed here when they are catalogued.

Current Source Links

Determination of 40 Elements in Powdered Infant Formulas and Related Risk Assessment — Italian powdered infant formula survey; 11 formulas, 22 packs, 40 elements by ICP-MS.
Comparative study of heavy metals in dried and fluid milk in Peshawar by atomic absorption spectrophotometry — Peshawar infant-formula nickel mean/range context; formula subgroup is not cow-milk/non-soy resolved.
Determination of aflatoxin M1 and heavy metals in infant formula milk brands available in Pakistani markets — Pakistan infant formula milk brand nickel range context; formula brands are not cow-milk/non-soy resolved.
Toxic Metals and Metalloids in Infant Formulas Marketed in Brazil, and Child Health Risks According to the Target Hazard Quotients and Target Cancer Risk — Brazil infant-formula toxic-metal survey routed to the locked child formula pages where powder and soy status can be reviewed.
Survey of metals in commercial infant foods, infant formula and non-infant specific foods — UK infant-food metals survey with infant-formula powder context; keep broad/base routing separate from locked child rows unless formula subtype is resolved.
Chemical characterization of baby food consumed in Italy — Italy baby-food survey with formula-powder context; product subgroup remains broad for this base node.
Ca, cadmium (Cd), Cu, Fe, mercury (Hg), Mn, nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), Se, and Zn contents in baby foods from the EU market: Comparison of assessed infant intakes with the present safety limits for minerals and trace elements — EU baby-food/formula element survey with broad formula categories; do not pool soy, hypoallergenic, and non-soy rows on this base page.
Infants' dietary arsenic exposure during transition to solid food — Exposure-context paper for infant transition diets; keep biomarker/food-diary context separate from formula occurrence rows.

Broad Formula Context

These sources can inform retrieval priorities and source-scope context, but they should not appear as direct evidence on Infant Formula, Powder (Non-Soy) or Infant Formula, Powder (Soy-Based) until the original data can classify the formula type.

Source	What it contributes	Why it stays on the base page
Determination of 40 Elements in Powdered Infant Formulas and Related Risk Assessment	Powdered infant formula metals from Italy, including Ni, Cd, Pb, and Sn summaries.	Powder format is clear, but soy/non-soy status is not separated in the extracted text.
Comparative study of heavy metals in dried and fluid milk in Peshawar by atomic absorption spectrophotometry	Peshawar infant-formula nickel mean and range.	Infant-formula subgroup is not cow-milk/non-soy resolved.
Determination of aflatoxin M1 and heavy metals in infant formula milk brands available in Pakistani markets	Pakistan infant formula milk brand nickel range and high source-scope maximum.	Formula brands are not cow-milk/non-soy resolved, and the high nickel maximum still needs PDF image QA.
Toxic Metals and Metalloids in Infant Formulas Marketed in Brazil, and Child Health Risks According to the Target Hazard Quotients and Target Cancer Risk	Brazil infant-formula metal and metalloid context.	Formula powder is declared broadly; locked child-row use requires subtype and basis review.
Survey of metals in commercial infant foods, infant formula and non-infant specific foods	UK infant-formula powder and baby-food metal context.	Broad formula routing stays visible here, while child-row values require product and basis fit.
Chemical characterization of baby food consumed in Italy	Italy baby-food survey with infant-formula powder context.	Formula subgroup is broad and should not be pooled into a child row without subtype review.
Ca, cadmium (Cd), Cu, Fe, mercury (Hg), Mn, nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), Se, and Zn contents in baby foods from the EU market: Comparison of assessed infant intakes with the present safety limits for minerals and trace elements	EU baby-food and formula element context.	The source spans formula and solid baby-food categories; soy/hypoallergenic/non-soy pooling is not permitted.
Infants' dietary arsenic exposure during transition to solid food	Transition-diet arsenic exposure context.	Biomarker and food-diary associations are not formula-powder occurrence rows.

Controls and mitigation

Infant formula is a manufactured product whose heavy-metal burden is determined by its ingredient inputs (dairy or soy protein base, vitamin and mineral premix, processing water, and processing equipment contact surfaces) rather than by whole-food agricultural contamination alone. The contamination profile of the finished product reflects the aggregate of all these inputs. The controls below describe potential points of intervention. The available citations do not establish a comparative ranking of their effects.

#	Category	Specific lever	Magnitude	Source
1	Sourcing	Specify low-metal mineral premix and protein ingredient inputs. Vitamin-mineral premixes are a documented pathway for aluminum and other trace metal contamination in formula; premix supplier specification and batch testing are the primary control.	Premix origin and specification can drive substantial variation in Al and other metal concentrations; quantified magnitude data not yet ingested from cited sources for this specific lever at the formula level.	—
2	Sourcing	Specify dairy protein (cow milk protein or whey) or soy protein concentrate from suppliers with documented low Cd, Al, and Pb in raw ingredient testing. Soy-based formulas consistently show higher Al and Ni relative to milk-based formulas (documented in cited sources).	The cited evidence documents soy vs non-soy systematic differences for Al, Ni, and Cd; quantified lever magnitude at the ingredient-specification level not yet ingested from cited sources.	—
3	Processing	Specify process water quality: water used for reconstitution of formula concentrate and for processing carries its own metal burden, particularly Pb from older plumbing and Al from water treatment. Processing water testing and specification is a well-established lever.	Quantified magnitude data not yet ingested from cited sources for water-source contribution to finished formula metal burden.	—
4	Processing	Equipment contact surface audit: stainless steel alloys and aluminium processing equipment can contribute Al to the product stream under certain cleaning conditions. Processing equipment audit is a GMP control.	Quantified magnitude data not yet ingested from cited sources for equipment-contact contribution.	—
5	Formulation	For soy-based formulas: review soy protein concentrate ingredient specification and consider lower-Al soy protein sources where the cited evidence shows systematic soy > non-soy Al elevation.	Quantified magnitude data not yet ingested for formulation-lever magnitude on the soy Al pathway specifically.	—
6	Testing and QC	Lot-level ICP-MS on incoming protein ingredients, mineral premix, and finished product. The Italian powdered formula survey (Determination of 40 Elements in Powdered Infant Formulas and Related Risk Assessment) documents multi-element occurrence across 22 product packs and illustrates the variation that lot testing is designed to catch.	Lot-level testing detects outlier batches before distribution; no quantified detection-power data yet ingested from cited sources for sample-size optimization.	Determination of 40 Elements in Powdered Infant Formulas and Related Risk Assessment
7	Packaging and storage	Not a primary lever for sealed powdered formula under normal storage conditions. Sn migration from non-lacquered cans is a concern for RTF and concentrated liquid formats but not for powdered formula. Specify lacquered or non-metallic can lining for liquid format siblings.	Sn migration is format-specific (liquid > powder); quantified magnitude data not yet ingested from cited sources for formula-specific Sn migration rates.	—

Agronomic levers: not applicable to this product category as a direct lever. Agronomic interventions on dairy herds or soy crops live upstream on the relevant ingredient pages.

Cross-links: Infant Formula, Powder (Non-Soy); Infant Formula, Powder (Soy-Based); relevant mitigation pages where they exist.

How standards math uses this page

This page documents what the cited sources report. The row-standard is an aggregate across all contributing sources after basis adjustment and row-fit review — not a decoration on any individual source row — and is set separately under the certification program, not published on this public page.

Citing this page at a single source’s maximum value as if it were a threshold justification misreads the evidence architecture: the maximum observed in one study is not the same as a representative value across the full source pool. HMT&C certification threshold decisions are made separately under the certification program and are not published on this public page.

Historical recalls and enforcement

No row-specific regulatory recall or enforcement action has been added to this page. Future entries will be framed as regulatory events, not brand rankings.

Measurements filed from the retired ingredient page

These sources were cited on the ingredient record before that record was retired.

Methodology

This page reports what the cited sources say about heavy-metal concentrations in powdered infant formula (base node, covering sources that do not separate non-soy from soy-based formula). The summary tables and inventories below are governed by a fixed set of methodology rules so the evidence is interpretable and auditable.

Speciation is treated as non-substitutable. Inorganic arsenic (iAs) and total arsenic (tAs) are reported separately; the toxicology and regulatory ceilings differ. Methylmercury (MeHg) and total mercury (tHg) are reported separately for the same reason. Total chromium (Cr) is not interpreted as hexavalent chromium (Cr-VI) unless the source explicitly speciates Cr-VI.

Basis is preserved and labeled, never silently converted. Concentrations in formula can be reported on at least three bases: powder as placed on the market, powder prepared for feeding (reconstituted with water at the manufacturer-specified dilution), or formula as consumed by an infant. Values on different bases are not directly comparable. Each table below labels the source basis explicitly. Where a basis conversion is provided, the conversion factor and assumptions are stated alongside the converted value, and the converted value is marked as indicative.

Non-detect handling. Where a source reports a value below its LOD or LOQ, this page preserves the source’s reported handling convention.

Source pooling is avoided. Aggregate statistics are not computed by pooling across sources with different LOQs, sampling periods, geographies, and analytical bases.

Row-fit. Sources on this base node are those whose author-stated scope does not resolve soy vs non-soy matrix or uses a broad powdered-formula umbrella. Sources that resolve the matrix belong on the appropriate child page.

Evidence tiers. A-tier: peer-reviewed primary studies and government reports. B-tier: NGO reports and trade publications. Synthesis leans on A-tier.

Source coverage. Low denotes 1–2 contributing sources, medium 3–10, and high more than 10. These counts describe coverage, not study quality, agreement, or scientific confidence.

HMT&C threshold-setting is separate. Certification thresholds are developed under the program at heavymetalcertified.com, not on this page. See the methodology for the wiki/HMT&C separation.

References

Works cited in this page’s text, in first-appearance order. See Sources for this page’s source inventory. Each title links to a source record with bibliographic details, reported findings, and document provenance.

Determination of 40 Elements in Powdered Infant Formulas and Related Risk AssessmentMaria Luisa Astolfi, Daniela Marotta, Vittoria Cammalleri, Elisabetta Marconi, Arianna Antonucci, Pasquale Avino, et al. · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · 2021 · doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18105073Peer-reviewed
Comparative study of heavy metals in dried and fluid milk in Peshawar by atomic absorption spectrophotometryGhosia Lutfullah, Abid Ali Khan, Azra Yasmeen Amjad, and Sajida Perveen · The Scientific World Journal · 2014 · doi.org/10.1155/2014/715845Peer-reviewed
Determination of aflatoxin M1 and heavy metals in infant formula milk brands available in Pakistani marketsSaeed Akhtar, Muhammad Arif Shahzad, Sang-Ho Yoo, Amir Ismail, Aneela Hameed, Tarig Ismail, et al. · Korean Journal for Food Science of Animal Resources · 2017 · doi.org/10.5851/kosfa.2017.37.1.79Peer-reviewed
Toxic Metals and Metalloids in Infant Formulas Marketed in Brazil, and Child Health Risks According to the Target Hazard Quotients and Target Cancer RiskAlmeida CC, Baiao DS, Rodrigues PA, Saint-Pierre TD, Hauser-Davis RA, and Leandro KC · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19(18):11178 · 2022 · doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191811178Peer-reviewed
Survey of metals in commercial infant foods, infant formula and non-infant specific foodsFood Standards Agency / Fera Science Ltd · UK Food Standards Agency report FS102048 · 2016 · www.food.gov.ukGovernment
Chemical characterization of baby food consumed in ItalyMeli MA, Desideri D, Sisti D, Fagiolino I, and Roselli C · PLOS ONE · 2024 · doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297158Peer-reviewed
Ca, Cd, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Se, and Zn contents in baby foods from the EU market: Comparison of assessed infant intakes with the present safety limits for minerals and trace elementsPandelova M, Levy Lopez W, Michalke B, and Schramm KW · Journal of Food Composition and Analysis · 2012 · doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2012.04.011Peer-reviewed
Infants’ dietary arsenic exposure during transition to solid foodSignes-Pastor AJ, Cottingham KL, Carey M, Sayarath V, Palys T, Meharg AA, et al. · Scientific Reports 8(1):7114 · 2018 · doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-25372-1Peer-reviewed
There is (still) too much aluminium in infant formulasShelle-Ann M. Burrell and Christopher Exley · BMC Pediatrics · 2010 · doi.org/10.1186/1471-2431-10-63Peer-reviewed
Arsenic, Organic Foods, and Brown Rice SyrupJackson BP, Taylor VF, Karagas MR, Punshon T, and Cottingham KL · Environmental Health Perspectives · 2012 · doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1104619Peer-reviewed
Dietary Exposure to Essential and Non-essential Elements During Infants’ First Year of Life in the New Hampshire Birth Cohort StudyAntonio J. Signes-Pastor, Vicki Sayarath, Brian Jackson, Kathryn L. Cottingham, Tracy Punshon, and Margaret R. Karagas · Exposure and Health · 2022 · doi.org/10.1007/s12403-022-00489-xPeer-reviewed

Sources

Source records associated with this topic. Inclusion does not establish that every finding applies to this product or ingredient. References above identify works cited in the text. Additional records await source or bibliographic review and are excluded from this list.

#	Citation	Year	Type	Used on this page for
1	Article 2026. Packaging for Whole Milk Powder and Infant, Peer-reviewed article	2026	Peer-reviewed	Contribution to this topic remains under review; see the source record for its reported scope.
2	Largueza et al. 2026. Essential and Potentially Toxic Elements in Commercial Milk Formulas: Health Risk Assessment Through a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis, Biological Trace Element Research	2026	Peer-reviewed	BR/EU/US Al, iAs, tAs, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, MeHg, Mn, Ni, Pb, U, Zn occurrence in Systematic review with meta-analysis of 30 observational studies (PRISMA, OSF.IO/2YNKB registered), 18 with pooled meta-analysis data, covering three… (n=30)
3	Occurrence et al. 2026. Heavy Metals in Infant Formula:, Peer-reviewed article	2026	Peer-reviewed	Contribution to this topic remains under review; see the source record for its reported scope.
4	Rahati et al. 2026. Monte Carlo simulation approach for health risk analysis of heavy metals’ contamination in infant formula and food on the Iranian market, Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition 45:13	2026	Peer-reviewed	IR Pb, Cd, tHg, Al, Cr, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, Ba, Sr, Se occurrence in 80 powdered infant formula samples from 8 commercial brands (age strata 0–6 months, 6–12 months, above 1 year)… (n=107)
5	Barber et al. 2025. Toxic elements in baby and young children’s foods in the US and correlation to ingredients, Food Additives & Contaminants: Part B	2025	Peer-reviewed	US tAs, iAs, Cd, tHg, MeHg, Pb, Tl occurrence in Non-targeted 2023 FDA convenience survey of 566 foods intended for babies, young children, pregnant women, and nursing mothers:… (n=566)
6	Dobrzyńska et al. 2025. Analysis of the Elemental Composition of Milk Formulae: Impact on the Nutritional Status of Infants From Birth to 1 Year of Age, Biological Trace Element Research	2025	Peer-reviewed	PL/EU tAs, Cd, tHg, Ni, Sn, Cr, Co, Cu, Mn occurrence in All powdered milk formulae available on the Polish market 2019-2023 for infants up to 12 months of age:… (n=149)
7	Höpfner et al. 2025. The contribution of infant formula to the food survey-based dietary exposure of nine selected elements, Journal of Environmental Exposure Assessment	2025	Peer-reviewed	DE/EU iAs, Cd, Pb, Cr, Ni, tHg, iHg, Mn, Se, Zn occurrence in German infants (0.5 to <1 year, n=51) and toddlers (1 to <3 years, n=63) consuming infant formula, from… (n=114)
8	Salem et al. 2025. Assessment of Heavy Metal Contamination in Baby Formulas in Bani Waleed City/Libya, Libyan Journal of Medical and Applied Sciences 2025, 3(2): 121-124	2025	Peer-reviewed	Contribution to this topic remains under review; see the source record for its reported scope.
9	Alyasiri 2024. Detection of Aflatoxin M1 and Several Heavy Metals in Medical Infant Milk Formula Sold in Iraqi Markets, International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Bio-Medical Science	2024	Peer-reviewed	IQ Pb, Cd occurrence in medical infant milk formula sold in Iraqi markets
10	Chen et al. 2024. Toxic Trace Elements in Meat and Meat Products Across Asia:, Foods	2024	Peer-reviewed	Contribution to this topic remains under review; see the source record for its reported scope.
11	Khatibi et al. 2024. Investigation of heavy metal concentrations and determination of estimated daily intake and health risk index infant formula and baby foods in Zahedan in 2020, Sigma Journal of Engineering and Natural Sciences 42(2): 614-620	2024	Peer-reviewed	IR Pb, Cd occurrence in 18 brands of powdered infant milk formula and 7 brands of baby cereals available in Zahedan, Sistan and… (n=25)
12	EFSA 2024. Risk assessment of small organoarsenic species in food, EFSA Journal	2024	Government report	EU tAs occurrence in 1,260 analytical results on DMA(V) and 988 on MMA(V) submitted to the EFSA Data Warehouse covering sampling years… (n=2248)
13	Zealand 2024. Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code - Schedule 19 - Maximum levels of contaminants and natural toxicants, Federal Register of Legislation, Authorised Version F2024C00908	2024	Government report	Contribution to this topic remains under review; see the source record for its reported scope.
14	Garuba et al. 2024. Evaluation of Heavy Metals in Commercial Baby Foods, Archives of Food and Nutritional Science	2024	Peer-reviewed	US Pb, Cd, tAs, Al, Zn, Cr, Ni occurrence in 10 commercial baby and toddler food products across 7 anonymized brands, purchased from a local retail store in… (n=10)
15	Meli et al. 2024. Chemical characterization of baby food consumed in Italy, PLOS ONE	2024	Peer-reviewed	Multi-element (Al, tAs, Cd, tHg, Ni, Pb, Sn) ICP-MS measurement in 25 European baby foods including powdered milk formula consumed in Italy; Cd and Pb below LOD in all samples including the formula category
16	Soni et al. 2024. Food additives and contaminants in infant foods: a critical review of their health risk, trends and recent developments, Food Production, Processing and Nutrition	2024	Peer-reviewed	US/EU/IN Al occurrence in Narrative review of food additives and contaminants in infant foods; no original measurements. Synthesizes EFSA opinions, US FDA…
17	Tatsuta et al. 2024. Dietary intake of methylmercury by 0–5 years children using the duplicate diet method in Japan, Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine	2024	Peer-reviewed	JP tHg, MeHg concentrations
18	ASAR 2023. The detection of some minerals in infant formula available in local markets, Iraqi Journal of Market Research and Consumer Protection	2023	Peer-reviewed	IQ Pb, Cu occurrence in Powdered infant formula samples collected from local markets in Baghdad Governorate, Iraq, July-August 2021 (n=10)
19	Alharbi et al. 2023. Occurrence and dietary exposure assessment of heavy metals in baby foods in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Food Science & Nutrition	2023	Peer-reviewed	SA tAs, Cd, Pb occurrence in 111 commercially available baby food products collected from pharmacies and main markets in Riyadh, Jeddah, and Dammam (Kingdom… (n=111)
20	Barca et al. 2023. A comprehensive review on infant, Peer-reviewed article	2023	Peer-reviewed	Contribution to this topic remains under review; see the source record for its reported scope.
21	Demir et al. 2023. Estimated daily intake and health risk assessment of toxic elements in infant formulas, British Journal of Nutrition	2023	Peer-reviewed	TR/EU Al, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, tAs, Se, Cd, Sn, Pb, tHg occurrence in 72 powdered cow-milk-based infant formula products from 16 anonymized brands in Turkiye, covering 0-6 month infant formula, follow-on… (n=72)
22	EU 2023. Commission Regulation (EU) 2023/915 of 25 April 2023 on maximum levels for certain contaminants in food and repealing Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006, Official Journal of the European Union	2023	Regulation	Contribution to this topic remains under review; see the source record for its reported scope.
23	/ 2023. Arsenic contamination in rice, radiation and chemical methods, Peer-reviewed article	2023	Peer-reviewed	Contribution to this topic remains under review; see the source record for its reported scope.
24	Martín-Carrasco et al. 2023. Comparison between pollutants found in breast milk and infant formula in the last decade: A review, Science of the Total Environment	2023	Peer reviewed review	EU/MA/NG Pb, Cd, tHg, MeHg, tAs, Al, Cr, Cu, Ni, Zn, Fe, Mn, Co, Sn, Se, Sb occurrence in Narrative review of 65 breast-milk studies and 73 infant-formula studies published 2012–2022, covering metals, heat-treatment products, pharmaceuticals, mycotoxins,…
25	Ozturk et al. 2023. Assessment of some element content and potential health risks in infant formulas available in Turkish markets, Turkish Journal of Analytical Chemistry 5(1):17-24	2023	Peer-reviewed	Contribution to this topic remains under review; see the source record for its reported scope.
26	Shawahna et al. 2023. Breastmilk cadmium levels and estimated, Peer-reviewed article	2023	Peer-reviewed	Contribution to this topic remains under review; see the source record for its reported scope.
27	USDA 2023. China Releases the Standard for Maximum Levels of Contaminants in Foods (USDA FAS GAIN Report CH2023-0040, unofficial translation of GB 2762-2022), USDA Foreign Agricultural Service, Global Agricultural Information Network (GAIN), Report Number CH2023-0040	2023	Regulation	Contribution to this topic remains under review; see the source record for its reported scope.
28	National Health Commission of 2022. GB 2762-2022 National Food Safety Standard: Maximum Levels of Contaminants in Foods, National Food Safety Standard GB 2762-2022	2022	Government report	Contribution to this topic remains under review; see the source record for its reported scope.
29	Flores-Aguilar et al. 2022. Selective Pb(II)-Imprinted Polymer for Solid Phase Extraction in the Trace Determination of Lead in Infant Formula by Capillary Electrophoresis, Journal of the Mexican Chemical Society	2022	Peer-reviewed	MX Pb occurrence in Twenty commercial infant formula samples analyzed for Pb after reconstitution according to manufacturer instructions; positive samples are reported… (n=20)
30	Gredilla et al. 2022. A Rapid Routine Methodology Based on Chemometrics to Evaluate the Toxicity of Commercial Infant Milks Due to Hazardous Elements, Food Analytical Methods	2022	Peer-reviewed	BR/CO Li, Al, Mg, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, tAs, Se, Cd, Sn, Sb, Ba, tHg, Tl, Pb, Mo occurrence in Twelve commercial powdered milk formulas purchased in representative cities of Brazil and Colombia: nine child/infant milks and three… (n=12)
31	Astolfi et al. 2021. Determination of 40 Elements in Powdered Infant Formulas and Related Risk Assessment, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health	2021	Peer-reviewed	ICP-MS measurement of 40 elements in 22 packs of 11 Italian-market powdered infant formulas; provides focused EU-context multi-element dataset for the powder row including Al, tAs, Cd, Ni, Pb, and Sn
32	Karimi et al. 2021. Evaluation of Aflatoxin M1 and Heavy Metal in Raw Materials and Infant Formula Produced in Pegah Dairy Plants, IRAN, Journal of Chemical Health Risks (2021) 11(1), 55-62	2021	Peer-reviewed	Contribution to this topic remains under review; see the source record for its reported scope.
33	Marques et al. 2021. Essential and Non-essential Trace Elements in Milks and Plant-Based Drinks, Biological Trace Element Research	2021	Peer-reviewed	EU/Spain Pb, tHg, Ni, U, V occurrence in Thirty-two retail milk and plant-based drink composites purchased from supermarkets in Reus, Catalonia, Spain in January 2021. Selection… (n=32)
34	May 2021. Journal of Animal Science, 2021, Vol. 99, No. 6, 1–10, Peer-reviewed article	2021	Peer-reviewed	Contribution to this topic remains under review; see the source record for its reported scope.
35	Mielech et al. 2021. Assessment of the Risk of Contamination of Food for Infants and Toddlers, Nutrients	2021	Review	PL/NO/US Pb, Cd, tAs, iAs, tHg occurrence in Narrative literature review of 83 publications (2004–2021, mainly October 2020–March 2021 search window) on contaminants in foods for…
36	Rothstein et al. 2021. Vulnerable families and costly formula: a, Peer-reviewed article	2021	Peer-reviewed	Contribution to this topic remains under review; see the source record for its reported scope.
37	State et al. 2021. Health Risk Evaluation of Selected Heavy Metals in Infant Nutrition Formula in Cross, Peer-reviewed article	2021	Peer-reviewed	Contribution to this topic remains under review; see the source record for its reported scope.
38	BfR 2020. FAQs about aluminium in food and products intended for consumers, BfR FAQ of 20 July 2020	2020	Government report	Contribution to this topic remains under review; see the source record for its reported scope.
39	CFIA 2020. Toxic Metals in Selected Foods – April 1, 2018 to March 31, 2019: Food chemistry – Targeted surveys – Final report, Canadian Food Inspection Agency	2020	Government report	CA tAs, Cd, Pb, tHg occurrence in Retail food samples (bran products, infant formula, meal replacement beverages, protein powders, rice products) collected from 6 Canadian… (n=985)
40	Zahra et al. 2020. Magnetic Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes Modified with Polythiophene as a Sorbent for Simultaneous Solid Phase Microextraction of Lead and Cadmium from Water and Food Samples, Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry Research	2020	Peer-reviewed	IR Pb, Cd occurrence in Black tea, rice, infant dry formula milk, and cow milk samples purchased in Yazd, Iran (n=5)
41	EU 2020. Commission Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006, consolidated text 28 September 2020, EUR-Lex consolidated text	2020	Government report	Contribution to this topic remains under review; see the source record for its reported scope.
42	Depa 2019. Heavy Metals in Baby Foods and Cereal Products, Turkish Journal of Computer and Mathematics Education	2019	Peer-reviewed	Pb, Cd occurrence in Baby foods and cereal products, including milk powder and cereal-based products (n=63)
43	Paiva et al. 2019. Occurrence and determination of inorganic contaminants in baby food and infant formula, Current Opinion in Food Science	2019	Peer reviewed review	global/BR/CN tAs, iAs, Cd, Pb, Al, Cu, tHg, MeHg, Zn, Ni occurrence in Baby foods and infant formulas, including infant formula, follow-on formula, cereals, purees, teething biscuits, rice-based baby foods, and… (n=Review article; multiple cited studies)
44	Editor 2019. Manganese Levels in Infant Formula and Young Child Nutritional Beverages in the United States and France, Unknown	2019	Journal article	US/FR Mn occurrence in Commercial infant formulas and nutritional beverages marketed in the United States and France (n=Unknown)
45	Frisbie et al. 2019. Manganese levels in infant formula and young child nutritional beverages in the United States and France: Comparison to breast milk and regulations, PLOS ONE	2019	Peer-reviewed	US/FR/EU Mn occurrence in 44 infant formulas and young-child nutritional beverage products purchased in the United States (n=25) and France (n=19), selected… (n=44)
46	Gardener et al. 2019. Lead and cadmium contamination in a large sample of United States infant formulas and baby foods, Science of the Total Environment	2019	Peer-reviewed	US Pb, Cd occurrence in 564 US baby food and infant formula products purchased from Denver CO area retail, online, and direct-to-consumer channels;… (n=564)
47	Houlihan et al. 2019. What’s in My Baby’s Food? A National Investigation Finds 95 Percent of Baby Foods Tested Contain Toxic Chemicals That Lower Babies’ IQ, Including Arsenic and Lead, Healthy Babies Bright Futures	2019	Nonprofit	US tAs, iAs, Pb, Cd, tHg occurrence in 168 commercial baby food containers, 61 brands, 13 food types; purchased from 14 US metropolitan areas and 15… (n=168)
48	Kuznetsova et al. 2019. Heavy metals in milk infant formulas, Food Science and Technology	2019	Peer-reviewed	UA/BY/PL Pb, Cu, Zn occurrence in Seven dry milk formula products labeled for infants from 6 months to 1 year, developed/manufactured in Ukraine, Belarus,… (n=7)
49	Vella et al. 2019. Consumption of Minerals, Toxic Metals and Hydroxymethylfurfural: Analysis of Infant Foods and Formulae, Toxics 2019, 7, 33	2019	Peer-reviewed	Contribution to this topic remains under review; see the source record for its reported scope.
50	BfR 2018. EU maximum levels for cadmium in food for infants and young children sufficient - Exposure to lead should fundamentally be reduced to the achievable minimum, BfR Opinion No. 026/2018	2018	Government report	DE/EU Cd, Pb occurrence in BfR assessment of German Federal Control Plan 2015 and Monitoring 2015 occurrence data for foods for infants and… (n=522)
51	Signes-Pastor et al. 2018. Infants’ dietary arsenic exposure during transition to solid food, Scientific Reports 8(1):7114	2018	Peer-reviewed	Longitudinal infant biomarker study citing prior data reporting tAs in formula powder up to 12.6 µg/kg; provides iAs exposure context for the transition-to-solids window relevant to formula as a baseline matrix
52	Akhtar et al. 2017. Determination of aflatoxin M1 and heavy metals in infant formula milk brands available in Pakistani markets, Korean Journal for Food Science of Animal Resources	2017	Peer-reviewed	Contribution to this topic remains under review; see the source record for its reported scope.
53	Domínguez et al. 2017. Essential and Toxic Metals in Infant Formula from the European Community, Open Access Journal of Toxicology 2(2):555585	2017	Peer-reviewed	Contribution to this topic remains under review; see the source record for its reported scope.
54	Durovic et al. 2017. Determination of Microelements in Human Milk and Infant Formula Without Digestion by ICP-OES, Acta Chimica Slovenica	2017	Peer-reviewed	ME/RS Zn, Fe, Cu occurrence in 28 mature human milk samples from lactating mothers and 15 powdered infant formula units representing five formula products… (n=43)
55	Unuvar et al. 2017. Determination of Element Concentrations in Commercial Infant Formulas Using Atomic Absorption Spectrometry, Atomic Spectroscopy	2017	Peer-reviewed	TR Al, Pb, Fe, Mg, Zn occurrence in Twenty commercial infant formula samples from five manufacturers, purchased from pharmacies and supermarkets in Malatya, Turkey and grouped… (n=20)
56	FSA 2016. Survey of metals in commercial infant foods, infant formula and non-infant specific foods, UK Food Standards Agency report FS102048	2016	Government report	UK FSA survey reporting category-level mean concentrations for 16 metals in dry first milk powder (Al 388–488 µg/kg, Cd 3–4 µg/kg, Pb 1–4 µg/kg, Ni 18–54 µg/kg) and dry soy formula (Al 2,550 µg/kg) from 2013–2014
57	Abdelkhalek et al. 2015. Assessment of Heavy Metals Residues in Milk Powder and Infant Milk Formula Sold in Mansoura City, Egypt, Alexandria Journal of Veterinary Sciences 2015, 47: 71-77	2015	Peer-reviewed	Contribution to this topic remains under review; see the source record for its reported scope.
58	EFSA 2015. Scientific Opinion on the risks to public health related to the presence of nickel in food and drinking water, EFSA Journal 2015;13(2):4002, 202 pp.	2015	Government report	EU Ni occurrence in 18,885 food samples and 25,700 drinking water samples (final dataset after exclusions) submitted to EFSA from 15 European… (n=18885)
59	EU 2015. Commission Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006, consolidated text of 21 May 2015, EUR-Lex consolidated text, CELEX 02006R1881-20150521	2015	Government report	Contribution to this topic remains under review; see the source record for its reported scope.
60	Mania et al. 2015. Toxic Elements in Commercial Infant Food, Estimated Dietary Intake, and Risk Assessment in Poland, Polish Journal of Environmental Studies	2015	Peer-reviewed	PL/EU Pb, Cd, tAs, tHg occurrence in Approximately 1,000 commercial infant-food samples collected from retail markets in all Polish provinces during the 2009-2013 sanitary-epidemiological monitoring… (n=1000)
61	Odhiambo et al. 2015. Toxic trace elements in different brands of milk infant formulae in Nairobi market, Kenya, African Journal of Food Science	2015	Peer-reviewed	KE Al, Cd, Pb, Ni occurrence in Seven imported cow-milk infant formula powder products for infants aged 0-6 months, purchased from stores in Nairobi County,… (n=7)
62	EFSA 2014. Dietary exposure to inorganic arsenic in the European population, EFSA Journal 2014;12(3):3597	2014	Government report	EU iAs, tAs concentrations (n=103773)
63	FSA 2014. Survey of metals and other elements in commercial infant foods, infant formula and non-infant specific foods, Food Standards Agency report	2014	Government report	GB Al, Sb, tAs, iAs, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Mn, tHg, Ni, Se, Sn, Zn occurrence in Forty-seven infant formula samples, 200 commercial infant foods, and 50 composite ‘other foods’ samples purchased from UK retail… (n=297)
64	Lutfullah et al. 2014. Comparative study of heavy metals in dried and fluid milk in Peshawar by atomic absorption spectrophotometry, The Scientific World Journal	2014	Peer-reviewed	AAS measurement of Pb, Cd, Cr, and Ni in dried infant formula and powdered milk from Peshawar markets; Pakistan-market context source for the broad powder row; soy/non-soy split not reported
65	EFSA 2012. Cadmium dietary exposure in the European population, EFSA Journal 2012;10(1):2551	2012	Government report	EU Cd occurrence in Cadmium occurrence results in food submitted to EFSA from 22 EU Member States, 3 European Economic Area or… (n=178541)
66	Pandelova et al. 2012. Ca, Cd, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Se, and Zn contents in baby foods from the EU market: Comparison of assessed infant intakes with the present safety limits for minerals and trace elements, Journal of Food Composition and Analysis	2012	Peer-reviewed	EU CASCADE project pooled-basket measurement of Cd, tHg, Ni, and Pb in 42 infant formula products from six EU countries; distinguishes milk-based, soy-based, and hypoallergenic baskets; broad formula-powder context
67	Zealand 2011. The 23rd Australian Total Diet Study, Food Standards Australia New Zealand	2011	Government report	AU/NZ Al, tAs, iAs, Cd, Pb, tHg, iHg, MeHg occurrence in Ninety-two Australian foods and beverages, including tap and bottled water, represented by 570 composite samples; each composite used… (n=570)
68	EFSA 2010. Scientific Opinion on Lead in Food, EFSA Journal 2010;8(4):1570	2010	Government report	EU Pb occurrence in Aggregated EU occurrence data: 94,126 quantified analytical results across 14 Member States, Norway and three commercial operators (2003–2009),… (n=94126)
69	Japan Ministry of Health, 2007. Ministerial Ordinance on Milk and Milk products Concerning Compositional Standards, etc., Ministerial Ordinance on Milk and Milk products Concerning Compositional Standards, etc. (English translation)	2007	Government report	Contribution to this topic remains under review; see the source record for its reported scope.
70	Committee on Toxicity of 2003. COT statement on a survey of metals in infant food, Committee on Toxicity statement	2003	Government report	GB Al, Sb, tAs, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, tHg, Ni, Se, Sn, Zn occurrence in Commercial UK baby foods and formulae, including infant formulae, manufactured baby foods, desserts, rusks, and infant drinks, surveyed… (n=189)

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