Heavy metals in Whole milk

This page draws on evidence from UK Food Standards Agency and FDA, together with 6 peer-reviewed studies. The complete citation list is at the bottom of the page.

Overview

FSA/Fera measured this ingredient or non-infant-specific food composite in Table 6 of the FS102048 survey. Exact concentration values remain in progress until Table 6 is parsed into structured ingredient rows with less-than and semi-quantitative flags preserved. Survey of metals in commercial infant foods, infant formula and non-infant specific foods

Why this commodity accumulates heavy metals

Whole milk is a low-accumulator matrix for most heavy metals. The dairy cow’s physiology actively restricts the transfer of ingested metals from blood to milk; this is particularly effective for cadmium and lead, which are tightly regulated across biological membranes. The transfer factor from feed to milk for cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) is very low (typically below 1 percent for Pb, and even lower for Cd), meaning that even when cows graze on Cd-or Pb-contaminated pastures, the resulting milk carries concentrations well below those of the feed. Mercury transfer to milk is similarly restricted. The FDA TDS FY2018-FY2020 data for whole fluid milk (n=27) record all seven measured analytes (Cd, chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), Pb, uranium (U), total arsenic (tAs), tHg) at zero across the entire distribution (FY2018-FY2020 TDS Elements Analytical Results), consistent with the well-established low-risk characterisation of fluid dairy from non-contaminated herds. Marques et al. (2021) detected Pb in non-organic whole milk at trace levels in Spanish retail samples by ICP-MS (Essential and Non-essential Trace Elements in Milks and Plant-Based Drinks), illustrating that Pb is detectable in some market contexts even if distribution-wide surveys show predominantly zero values. Whole milk’s fat content relative to skim milk results in slightly higher concentrations of lipophilic metal species, but this effect is minor for the regulated heavy metals of concern.

Heavy metal contamination profile

This table summarizes the available occurrence evidence for each metal. A data gap means the literature was reviewed for this commodity and metal but no usable occurrence data was found. Key sources link to contributing studies.

Synthesis basis and censoring treatment

The per-analyte values above were resynthesized on 2026-08-09 on a liquid whole-milk as-consumed (wet-weight) basis. The earlier profile reported lead, cadmium, total mercury, nickel, and chromium at typical and 95th-percentile values of zero. Those figures were an artifact of FDA Total Diet Study composites in which every whole-milk sample fell below the reporting limit (lead 1, cadmium 1, mercury 1, nickel 20, chromium 25 micrograms per kilogram) and the reported non-detects were pooled as literal zeros. Values below the analytical reporting or detection limit are treated here as left-censored, not as measured zeros.

Lead in commercial milk is low but non-zero, with a regional right tail. Starska et al. 2011, sampling 483 Polish milk and dairy products, reports a milk mean of 8 and a 90th percentile of 17 micrograms per kilogram, with two of 75 milk samples above the 20 microgram per kilogram Codex maximum level and a maximum of 50. Chen et al. 2020 reports a Chinese cow-milk mean of 23.4, above the Codex level, and Davidov et al. 2019 a Serbian mean of 80 described by the authors as just above recommended values. Cadmium, chromium, and total mercury sit at or below a few micrograms per kilogram across these datasets; total mercury in particular is genuinely trace, with Pankiewicz et al. 2012 reporting Polish milk at 0.03 to 0.06. Nickel spans from below the FDA reporting limit to the 119 microgram per kilogram Serbian mean. Values reported only in a contaminated-market survey (Ibrahim et al. 2024, Egyptian raw-milk cadmium mean 90) are carried as an elevated-context tail rather than adopted as the central value.

Routing

This ingredient is listed in the ingredient index.

Contamination Profile State

Per-analyte state — populated, in progress, or declared data gap — is carried authoritatively in the machine-readable contamination_profile frontmatter and the contamination-profile table above. Ingredient-level values belong here; finished-product values belong on the relevant product-category page.

FDA TDS FY2018-FY2020 Evidence

FDA’s FY2018-FY2020 Total Diet Study dataset includes this page’s routed matrix as TDS Food 1, “Milk, whole, fluid.” The normalized row-level data is stored in data/evidence/fda_tds_fy2018_2020_element_results_samples.csv, with per-food/per-analyte summaries in data/evidence/fda_tds_fy2018_2020_summary_by_food_analyte.csv. Concentrations are retained as FDA reported them, with reporting limits preserved separately; reported zeroes are not rewritten as <LOD without a source-specific rule. FY2018-FY2020 TDS Elements Analytical Results

FDA TDS FY2018–FY2020 source observations

FDA measured the prepared foods named below. Each row describes that food and preparation, not every form of this ingredient. Values are µg/kg (ppb) on the FDA sample basis. ND means not detected; it is not a measured zero. Reporting limits can vary between composites. FY2018-FY2020 TDS Elements Analytical Results

Ranges by source, region, and variety

FDA TDS FY2018-FY2020 data (n=27) for whole fluid milk in the US show zero values across all analytes (Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, U, tAs, tHg) throughout the distribution (FY2018-FY2020 TDS Elements Analytical Results). The Marques et al. 2021 Spanish retail study detected Pb in non-organic whole cow milk, illustrating that while distribution-wide surveys show predominantly zero values, some market contexts yield detectable Pb (Essential and Non-essential Trace Elements in Milks and Plant-Based Drinks). Dairy from herds grazing pastures with elevated Pb or Cd, such as land near legacy mining or smelting operations, can produce milk with elevated concentrations; this is a localised exception rather than a characteristic of the commodity category. Organic versus conventional milk is not systematically associated with different metal profiles in the published literature, as the primary determinant of milk metal content is the metal burden of the pasture and feed rather than production system.

Processing effects

Pasteurisation (HTST or UHT) does not significantly alter the metal content of milk; the thermal treatment targets microbial pathogens rather than mineral or metal composition. Homogenisation, which breaks up fat globules to produce uniform fat distribution, does not change total metal concentrations. Ultra-high temperature (UHT) processing and sterilisation similarly leave metal concentrations unchanged. Spray-drying of whole milk to produce whole milk powder concentrates all solutes including metals in proportion to the water removed, roughly by a factor of 7 to 8 (reflecting the reconstitution ratio of approximately 1 part powder to 7 parts water); however, because the starting fluid milk concentrations are near or below detection limits, the resulting whole milk powder concentrations remain very low even after this concentration step. Evaporated milk, which is concentrated but not fully dried, shows a similar concentration factor.

Ingredient-derivative risk

Whole milk is the starting material for a range of dairy derivatives including cream, butter, cheese, yogurt, condensed milk, evaporated milk, and whole milk powder. In all of these derivatives, the metal profile of the raw milk is carried through with modification only by the concentration or dilution factor of the processing step. Cheese production involves concentration of protein and fat (which removes whey), so any metals associated with the protein or fat fraction may be slightly concentrated in the curd; however, cheese metal concentrations remain very low given the near-zero starting point of fluid milk. Butter, which is almost pure fat, carries minimal metals. Whey protein products (whey protein concentrate, whey protein isolate) are addressed on separate ingredient pages and may carry different metal profiles from the whey fraction.

Mitigation options

Sourcing levers

Sourcing milk from herds grazing on non-contaminated pastures in regions without legacy industrial Pb or Cd soil loading is the primary upstream lever, though this is rarely a practical concern for commercially produced whole milk at population scale. In geographies with legacy mining or smelting activity adjacent to dairy farming, pasture metal testing and milk surveillance are appropriate.

Agronomic levers

No quantified data on this lever in the current corpus; section will be expanded when relevant evidence is ingested.

Processing levers

No quantified data on this lever in the current corpus; section will be expanded when relevant evidence is ingested.

Formulation levers

No quantified data on this lever in the current corpus; section will be expanded when relevant evidence is ingested.

Testing and QC levers

Routine heavy metal testing of commercial whole milk for Pb and Cd is unlikely to yield actionable values under standard supply-chain conditions. Testing is warranted for dairy sourced from geographic areas with known soil contamination, or for product categories such as infant formula where milk is a primary ingredient and regulatory scrutiny of metals is high.

Packaging and storage levers

No quantified data on this lever in the current corpus; section will be expanded when relevant evidence is ingested.

Regulatory limits that apply

The European Union sets a maximum level for Pb in raw milk, heat-treated milk, and milk-based products of 0.020 mg/kg (20 ppb) under EU Regulation 2023/915 maximum levels for contaminants in food. No EU maximum level is set for Cd in fluid milk because Cd transfer to milk from contaminated feed is very low. No maximum level for mercury (Hg) in milk is promulgated under current EU contaminant regulations. In the US, no FDA action level for Pb, Cd, or Hg in fluid cow milk is currently enforced under the FDA Closer to Zero — Program Overview programme, which focuses on processed infant foods and baby foods rather than raw milk constituents. Codex Alimentarius — Maximum Levels for Cadmium in Food includes provisions for Pb in milk at 0.020 mg/kg, consistent with the EU limit.

Interpretation of source evidence

Source observations and population estimates are different. A non-detect supplies a reporting-limit bound for the tested composites. It does not show that this ingredient contains zero metal. Where a previous profile lacked matching source, species or basis support, its generic concentration has been withdrawn; the available source evidence is kept below.

tAs. FDA source observations are non-detects at the reporting limits below. They do not estimate a zero population concentration; other literature remains separate context.

U. FDA source observations are non-detects at the reporting limits below. They do not estimate a zero population concentration; other literature remains separate context.

Other previously cited literature is retained as context; it does not establish the withdrawn numerical profile: Essential and Non-essential Trace Elements in Milks and Plant-Based Drinks.

References

Works cited in this page’s text, in first-appearance order. See Sources for this page’s source inventory. Each title links to a source record with bibliographic details, reported findings, and document provenance.

1. Survey of metals in commercial infant foods, infant formula and non-infant specific foodsFood Standards Agency / Fera Science Ltd · UK Food Standards Agency report FS102048 · 2016 · www.food.gov.ukGovernment
2. FY2018-FY2020 TDS Elements Analytical ResultsU.S. Food and Drug Administration · FDA Total Diet Study · 2022 · www.fda.govDataset
3. Essential and Non-essential Trace Elements in Milks and Plant-Based DrinksMarques M, Correig E, Capdevila E, Gargallo E, Gonzalez N, Nadal M, et al. · Biological Trace Element Research · 2021 · doi.org/10.1007/s12011-021-03021-5Peer-reviewed
4. Noxious Elements in Milk and Milk Products in PolandStarska K, Wojciechowska-Mazurek M, Mania M, Brulinska-Ostrowska E, Biernat U, and Karlowski K · Polish Journal of Environmental Studies · 2011Peer-reviewed
5. Analysis of 17 elements in cow, goat, buffalo, yak, and camel milk by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS)Chen L, Li X, Li Z, and Deng L · RSC Advances · 2020 · doi.org/10.1039/d0ra00390ePeer-reviewed
6. Contamination of Cow Milk by Heavy Metals in SerbiaDavidov I, Kovacevic Z, Stojanovic D, Pucarevic M, Radinovic M, Stojic N, et al. · Acta Scientiae Veterinariae · 2019 · doi.org/10.22456/1679-9216.96366Peer-reviewed
7. Monitoring of total mercury level in selected dairy products from the south-east regions of PolandPankiewicz U · Ecological Chemistry and Engineering A · 2012 · doi.org/10.2428/ecea.2012.19(01)014Peer-reviewed
8. Heavy metals in raw milk and Egyptian cheese typesIbrahim SA, El-Sohaimy SA, Abd El-Aziz M, and Shehata MG · Open Veterinary Journal · 2024 · doi.org/10.5455/OVJ.2024.v14.i2.4Peer-reviewed

Sources

Source records associated with this topic. Inclusion does not establish that every finding applies to this product or ingredient. References above identify works cited in the text.

Update history

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