Archives of Toxicology (2025) 99:153–209

Overview

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Key numbers

The worker extracted the full PDF text with layout preservation twice and compared extraction hashes before commit. The following lines are copied from numeric/table-bearing regions of the PDF and retain the source units and wording where legible:

(Balali-Mood et al. 2021). Aluminum is used in many Aluminum (Al) is the 13th element in the periodic table and
industries because of its beneficial properties, generally in the third most abundant element (8.2% by weight) in the
however, aluminum compounds can exist in three oxidation are relatively poorly absorbed (approximately 2–3%). The
waters could be toxic to aquatic life and humans (Gensemer More than 90% of an aluminum load is bound to a trans-
As outlined above, inhalation and ingestion are the two main less than 0.5% of orally administered aluminum through the
causing a wide range of systemic pathological conditions taining standard food for 0, 1, 3, or 5 months, markers of
Al3+ may replace iron in Fe3+ sites because of the charge (FPV), forced mid-expiratory flow rate (FEF%), and vari-
observation of pulmonary lesions is rare and inconsistent. lar administration of Convolvulus pluricaulis (150 mg/kg)
Histological evaluation of the lungs of Wistar rats fol- together with AlCl3 (50 mg/kg) for 3 months suppressed the
tion, and alpha-1-antitrypsin (A1AT) protein, whose defi- rats that received 4 mg/kg aluminum for 3 weeks experi-
2024). It has been suggested that environmental exposure sure to aluminum increases the incidence of a wide range
responsible for the transport of charged species and solutes, Cadmium (Cd) is the 48th element in the periodic table and
mately in the range of 1–10 nM (van Kerkhove et al. 2010). hypercalciuria, glucosuria, and other pathologies. Despite
10–50% of inhaled cadmium is absorbed. With respect to Owing to the structural similarities between cadmium
orally ingested cadmium, only 6% is absorbed, and less ions and several d-electron essential (transition) metals,
than 1% of cadmium is absorbed dermally. Humans excrete such as Fe, Zn, and Cu, cadmium can significantly affect the
renal markers ranged from 2.4 to 11.5 μg cadmium/g cre- finally leading to the redox-metal-catalyzed formation of
other hand, decreased DNA repair and apoptosis may occur by 20%. Percutaneous absorption of high concentrations
Arsenic (As) is the 33rd element in the periodic table and body, mainly to the liver and, to a much lesser extent, to the
products is less than 5 ppm of heavy metal impurities. The agents (Kitchin 2001). In the case of overloaded methyla-
for As in water is 10 µg/l. through the urine, a much smaller portion through feces, and
which differ in their mechanisms and biological functions which has been estimated to be approximately 10–30% of
(Sun 2017). Ligands of diverse immune receptors stimu- inorganic arsenic, 10–20% of MMA, and 60–80% of DMA
(> 50%) responsible for many human cancers. Arsenic tri- cancers in a dose-dependent manner.
extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) signaling thioarsinic acid (DMMTA(V)) presented a 60% decrease in
Arsenic exposure (2 or 4 mg/kg body weight) increased firmed a causal relationship between the level of arsenic
ROS formation by 47% or 84%, increased oxidative stress, exposure and cardiovascular disease risk factors (Moon
13% or 15%, and decreased the activity of mitochondrial for cardiovascular disease, has been found to correlate with
exposed to a lower dose (2 mg/kg body weight) of arsenic As discussed above, oxidative stress is a well-established
due to arsenic poisoning, one should consider the possibility Mercury (Hg) is the 80th element in the period table. The
The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a network of extra- are rare. The mercury ion Hg22+ exists as a stable diatomic
groups (Jomova and Valko 2013). In addition to the –SH millimolar range; therefore, MeHg-induced oxidative stress
the concentration of malondialdehyde (MDA), a biomarker and approximately 80% of mercury vapor reaches the blood-
activity of Nrf2 via a Keap1-dependent mechanism, thus incidence of neurological disorders are outlined in Table 1.
Table 1 Toxic effects of mercury: molecular alterations affecting the major intracellular antioxidant glutathione (GSH). The
damage, mainly because of its high and specific metabolic was further studied in the range of 2–10 µM concentrations
intoxication because approximately 80% of mercury vapor
the farmers’ hair was 1.24 mg/kg, whereas that of healthy
subjects was 0.49 mg/kg.
viduals whose hair mercury content was greater than 5 ppm,
whereas concentrations less than 1 ppm seem to be safe
in the urine), changes in urine volume, and other symptoms. Lead (Pb) is the 82nd element in the periodic table of ele-

Methods (brief)

tem (RAAS), maintaining a concerted action of hormones necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), IL-1β, and IL-6, resulting in
reaction or direct ROS formation. However, contrary to this metallothionein-null mice (Klaassen et al. 2009). Neverthe-
one hand, elevated levels of metallothionein might result in that samples sold on the Dutch market exceeded the safety
abundant form of arsenic in the air is inorganic arsenic triox- DMA(V). Methylation is again achieved by the conversion
contain toxic metals, including arsenic. Arsenic present in dimethylarsinous acid, DMA(III), which have been found
Wielen 2010). Quantitative mass spectrometry revealed arsenic.
arsenic metabolism. Arse- DMA(V)
dimethyl-arsinic acid, DMA(V).
chondrial respiration and uncouples mitochondrial oxida- to trivalent dimethylarsinous acid ((CH3)2AsOH, DMA(III))
tive phosphorylation in a comparable manner (Corsini et al. (Naranmandura et al. 2012). DMA(III) exposure was shown
and increased the transcription of Nrf2 and the expression (MMA, DMA), which are then eliminated through the kid-
(Sun 2017). Ligands of diverse immune receptors stimu- inorganic arsenic, 10–20% of MMA, and 60–80% of DMA
(TNFR) family members. populations have higher DMA% and lower MMA% values,
pathway via the phosphorylation of p65 at the Ser536 and levels of MMA% and lower levels of DMA% have been
or inhibits DNA repair in animals (Rossman et al. 2002). inous acid (DMA(III)) and dimethylmonothioarsinic acid
such as benzo(a)pyrenes (Evans et al. 2004). (DMA(V)) and dimethyldithioarsinic acid (DMDTA(V)),
in human cancers, involving the Akt signaling pathway, the with dimethylarsinous acid (DMA(III)) or dimethylmono-
monitored via ICP‒MS, and DNA damage in leukocytes hearing problems, and a damaged peripheral nerve system.

Implications

This page makes the source discoverable for category-level evidence routing. Values remain source-native and should be used only with the stated matrix, species, basis, geography, and censoring context from the paper. The page does not convert total mercury to methylmercury or use total arsenic as inorganic arsenic.

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Verification notes

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Update history

The five most recent substantive edits to this page, classified major (evidence or structure moved), correction (a published value or statement was wrong and has been fixed), or minor (narrative rewritten without changing the underlying evidence). Each description is derived from what the edit did to this page; the linked commit is the authoritative record, routine regeneration passes are excluded, and the full version history lives in git. When DOI minting comes online (see schema docs), each entry below will also link to a version-pinned DataCite DOI.

Commit	Date	Change	Description
b01ec52c	2026-08-04	major	2 sections added
d49e450f	2026-08-03	major	5 sections added; narrative text revised