Heavy Metals in Infant Formula:

Overview

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Key numbers

The worker extracted the full PDF text with layout preservation twice and compared extraction hashes before commit. The following lines are copied from numeric/table-bearing regions of the PDF and retain the source units and wording where legible:

(Al). In many cases, more than 60% of analyzed samples contained detectable levels of Pb, Cd, and As, with
exposure levels, and data availability. In Nigeria, which accounts for the highest number of studies (n = 7),
infants aged 0–12 months. Concentration ranges are notably broad, with aluminium (189.00–17,000.00 µg/kg)
and lead (10.00–3,500.00 µg/kg) showing particularly high upper limits, suggesting significant inconsistencies
2025). Studies from Egypt (n = 5) show relatively narrower concentration ranges, indicating more consistent
from 287.00 to 761.00 µg/kg and Pb from 48.00 to 675.00 µg/kg. However, Hg levels (236.00–345.00 µg/kg)
0–6 months. The metals reported include Al, Cd, Ni, and Pb. Al concentrations range from 770.00 to 3,842.00
profile for this metal. Ni (14.00–42.00 µg/kg) and Pb (12.00–70.00 µg/kg) were present at moderate levels. EDI
values were reported only for Al (1.20–16.00 µg/kg), limiting a comprehensive exposure assessment. Although
concentration levels. Arsenic ranges from 6.00 to 57.00 µg/kg, Cd from 11.00 to 65.00 µg/kg, and Pb from
10.00 to 368.00 µg/kg. Ni shows relatively higher concentrations (65.00–183.00 µg/kg) compared to other
countries, indicating a possible regional trend. Hg levels are comparatively low (0.20–2.00 µg/kg), suggesting
reduced risk for this metal. EDI values indicate moderate exposure, with Pb ranging from 1.05 to 6.34 µg/kg and
Ni from 1.11 to 3.15 µg/kg. Ghana presents a more balanced contamination profile, though the relatively higher
Ni levels and consistent presence of multiple metals still point to notable exposure risks (Amarh et al., 2023;
µg/kg and Ni from 20.00 to 170.00 µg/kg. Cd levels (1.00–7.00 µg/kg) are relatively low compared to countries
like Nigeria and Egypt, while Pb (10.00–240.00 µg/kg) falls within a moderate range. However, the absence of
EDI values are estimated to mean range across different factors, including age (0-12 months), body size, infant types, and gender
II). In Spain, two studies involving infants aged 6–12 months report a wide range of metals, including Al, As,
Cd, Hg, Ni, and Pb. Al shows particularly high concentrations (1,580.00–7,050.00 µg/kg) and an extremely
Other metals such as Pb (50.00–493.00 µg/kg) and Ni (40.00–250.00 µg/kg) occur at moderate levels, while Hg
remains relatively low to moderate (0.00–21.00 µg/kg). These highlight Al as a major concern for infant health
contamination pattern dominated by Cd and Hg. Cd ranges from 1,000.00 to 3,600.00 µg/kg, while Hg ranges
from 400.00 to 1,300.00 µg/kg, among the highest reported in Europe. In contrast, As (2.90–14.90 µg/kg) and
Pb (2.40–8.90 µg/kg) are relatively low, indicating selective contamination. Although EDI values remain
µg/kg, the highest in the region. Hg (0.50–113.00 µg/kg) and Pb (7.90–43.90 µg/kg) occur at moderate levels,
assessment (Pandelova et al., 2012). In Sweden, the lowest concentration ranges in Europe are reported, with As
(0.50–12.50 µg/kg), Cd (0.06–11.00 µg/kg), and Pb (0.17–33.00 µg/kg) showing controlled levels. Despite this,
EDI values for Pb can reach up to 50 µg/kg bw/day, indicating that exposure risk depends on consumption
Kingdom reports some of the highest contamination spikes, with Cd reaching 12,500.00 µg/kg and Hg 1,080
(Bair, 2022; Zand et al., 2012). The data are presented in Table 2.
observed, with Pb concentrations reaching up to 1,040 µg/kg and elevated Cd exposure reflected in higher EDI
EDI values are estimated mean range across different factors, including age (0-12 months), body size, infant types, and gender
EDI values are estimated to mean range across different factors, including age (0-12 months), body size, infant types, and gender.
across all metals, particularly for Ni, which reaches an upper concentration of 1,002 µg/kg. Despite this
concentrations of Pb and Cd are exceptionally high, reaching up to 6,080 µg/kg and 3,400 µg/kg, respectively.
EDI values are estimated to mean range across different factors, including age (0-12 months), body size, infant types, and gender.
for Al and As, with concentrations reaching up to 8,799 µg/kg and 1,150 µg/kg, respectively. These findings
Hg <LOD - al., 2024
EDI values are estimated mean range across different factors, including age (0-12 months), body size, infant types, and gender.
exceptionally low detection limits, typically reaching parts-per-trillion (ppt) levels (~0.001 ppb) for many heavy
the parts-per-billion (ppb) range (commonly 1–10 ppb, and occasionally sub-ppb under optimized conditions),

Methods (brief)

product categories, with some samples exceeding international safety limits, particularly for lead,
some metals. Inductively Coupled Plasma–Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) was the most frequently used
analytical technique, followed by AAS and ICP-OES, although methodological inconsistencies across
probiotics and prebiotics to support digestion and immunity (Dipasquale et al., 2020; Salminen et al., 2020).
(Al). In many cases, more than 60% of analyzed samples contained detectable levels of Pb, Cd, and As, with
moderate ranges. Notably, Hg was consistently reported below the limit of detection (<LOD), (De Almeida et
<LOD – Metal concentration was below the Limit of Detection
infant formula, Inductively Coupled Plasma–Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) was the most widely applied
trace levels of metals, and capacity for simultaneous multi-element analysis. ICP-MS was widely used across
technique was Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS), particularly Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometry
(FAAS), which was applied in approximately nineteen studies. This method is widely used due to its
affordability and reliability, especially in developing regions. However, unlike ICP-MS, FAAS is limited to
Inductively Coupled Plasma–Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES), also known as Inductively
Coupled Plasma–Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-AES), was the third most frequently used analytical
and is often considered a cost-effective alternative to ICP-MS. However, its lower sensitivity limits its suitability
Absorption Spectrometry (GFAAS), also known as Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (ETAAS),
was used in about six studies, offering improved sensitivity compared to FAAS, particularly for trace-level
al., 2020; Nyasordzi et al., 2025). High-Resolution Continuum Source Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometry

Implications

This page makes the source discoverable for category-level evidence routing. Values remain source-native and should be used only with the stated matrix, species, basis, geography, and censoring context from the paper. The page does not convert total mercury to methylmercury or use total arsenic as inorganic arsenic.

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Verification notes

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Update history

The five most recent substantive edits to this page, classified major (evidence or structure moved), correction (a published value or statement was wrong and has been fixed), or minor (narrative rewritten without changing the underlying evidence). Each description is derived from what the edit did to this page; the linked commit is the authoritative record, routine regeneration passes are excluded, and the full version history lives in git. When DOI minting comes online (see schema docs), each entry below will also link to a version-pinned DataCite DOI.

Commit	Date	Change	Description
b01ec52c	2026-08-04	major	2 sections added
d49e450f	2026-08-03	major	5 sections added; narrative text revised