Overview
This Heliyon paper measures chromium, manganese, nickel, copper, zinc, cadmium, lead, iron, mercury, and arsenic in 12 lipstick samples from Ghanaian markets using XRF analysis. Mercury and arsenic were not detected in any sample. Chromium, copper, and iron showed the highest concentrations and greatest variability. Cadmium concentrations in most samples exceeded the FDA comparator limit of 3 mg/kg. Lead concentrations in some samples approached or exceeded the FDA comparator of 10 mg/kg. The authors perform dermal and oral health risk assessments; hazard quotients for non-carcinogenic risk remained below 1, but relative intake indices for chromium, cadmium, and lead indicated exposure levels far exceeding acceptable daily intakes for heavy users.
Key numbers
All concentrations are in finished lipstick product as placed on market by XRF (Niton XRF analyzer, Thermo Scientific Mobile Test S, 180-second scan). Units are mg/kg. Results are averages of triplicate analyses.
Method LOD
Chromium LOD: 1 mg/kg
Cadmium LOD: 0.5 mg/kg
(Set based on prior studies with similar methods; stated in source as reference-method limits.)
Group summary statistics (Table 3; 12 samples per metal)
| Metal | Group average (mg/kg) | Range |
|---|---|---|
| Chromium | 544.32 | BDL to 2554.20 |
| Manganese | 158.84 | 0.09 to 823.00 |
| Nickel | 53.93 | BDL to 228.40 |
| Copper | 1335.40 | BDL to 14053.33 |
| Zinc | 62.61 | not stated separately |
| Cadmium | 19.96 | not stated separately |
| Lead | 3.53 | not stated separately |
| Iron | 14842.67 | not stated separately |
| Mercury | 0 | not detected |
| Arsenic | 0 | not detected |
BDL means below detection limit.
Notable individual sample values
Chromium: samples S4 (583.00), S6 (2554.20), S7 (613.60), S8 (1184.67), and S11 (1380.00) mg/kg each significantly exceeded the Health Canada acceptable limit of 1 mg/kg cited by the authors.
Copper: sample S1 (14053.33 mg/kg) and S7 (1939.84 mg/kg) exceeded the acceptable limit of 100 mg/kg cited by the authors.
Cadmium: mean 19.96 mg/kg. Source states that most samples surpassed the FDA comparator of 3 mg/kg.
Lead: mean 3.53 mg/kg. Source states that lead in some samples approached or exceeded the FDA comparator of 10 mg/kg.
Statistical analysis
One-way ANOVA across metals: F-value 2.639 (greater than critical F 1.966), P = 0.008. Statistically significant differences in heavy metal concentrations among lipstick samples.
Pearson correlation: chromium and nickel show strong positive correlation (r = 0.99). Manganese and zinc positive correlation (r = 0.89). Cadmium and lead negative correlation (r = negative 0.85).
Methods (brief)
Sample collection. 12 lipstick samples from local markets in Ghana, including local and imported products. Brands not disclosed.
Sample preparation. Lipsticks broken into small pieces, pulverized with mortar and pestle, sealed in Ziploc bags. Each sample (1.5 g) placed in holders covered with Mylar film for XRF analysis.
Analytical method. Niton XRF analyzer (Thermo Scientific Mobile Test S, NDTrXL3t-86956). 180-second scan, calibrated against standard discs. All analyses in triplicate; mean of three used.
Health risk assessment. Dermal and oral exposure routes assessed using USEPA equations. Relative intake index (RII) calculated for oral exposures. Hazard quotients computed per metal.
Speciation. Total elemental concentrations. No speciation of chromium (total chromium only, not hexavalent). No speciation of arsenic.
Implications
Certification. A-tier occurrence data for the Ghanaian lipstick market. The 12-product dataset shows very high chromium concentrations (up to 2554 mg/kg) and elevated cadmium (mean 19.96 mg/kg) compared to European and North American studies. The XRF method does not speciate chromium; total chromium values cannot be directly compared to hexavalent chromium (Cr-VI) limits. Cadmium and lead values from Ghana substantially exceed what has been found in Chinese e-commerce or Turkish market studies, consistent with a market with limited cosmetic contaminant enforcement. These data are relevant to the adult lip-product page (HMTc Cat 13, Row 8) rather than to the children’s makeup page, as the products were marketed for adult use.
Courses. Useful for illustrating geographic variation in cosmetic contamination levels, the limitation of XRF for chromium (Cr) speciation, and the HQ versus RII dichotomy (acceptable acute risk coexisting with excessive long-term intake index for heavy users).
Related evidence
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