Federica Cernigliaro 1 , Andrea Santangelo 2,3 , Rosaria Nardello 1 , Salvatore Lo Cascio 1 , Sofia D’Agostino 1 ,

Overview

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Key numbers

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reduced intake of fruit and vegetables, constitute risk factors for many chronic diseases (1).
mately 15% and 7% of ASD cases, respectively. Despite considerable progress, most ASD
cases (>75%) still have unknown causes (12).
responsible for approximately 40–50% of ASD (12) and include exposure to drugs or toxic
age was associated with a 20% greater risk of developing ASD, probably also due to age-
with a 50% increased risk of ASD.
62% increased risk of developing ASD in diabetic mothers compared with non-diabetics,
while another study found a 74% increased risk for pregestational diabetes and 43% for
damage, which we will analyze later. A meta-analysis found a 60% increased risk of
• Organophosphates are associated with a 60% increased risk of developing ASD (41).
The fetal brain consumes 75% of fetal energy (mainly glucose), so its development is
by 30%, ASD by 10%, and intellectual developmental delay by 23%. Obesity before preg-
by 17% (55). According to various clinical studies, maternal obesity is responsible for
1.39–1.59% of ASD cases.
A meta-analysis showed a 28% increased risk of ASD in the offspring of overweight
mothers and 36% in the offspring of obese mothers, with an increased risk of ASD even in
nancy: in the first phase of gestation, glucose provides 80% of the energy, the fatty acids are
glucose provides 80% of the energy, but there is an increased demand for fatty acids; in the
early postnatal phase, blood glucose drops and fatty acids provide 50% of the energy (58).
Table 1 summarizes the alterations and functions of the main nutrients during prenatal
Table 1. Alterations and functions of the main nutrients during prenatal phase, based on litera-
It is estimated that approximately 30% of the global population has a mild-moderate
Vitamin B6 is contained in foods of animal origin, but also vegetables. It plays an
Gangliosides constitute 6% of the phospholipids in the SN and play a crucial role in
Table 2 resumes the main pathogenetic mechanisms and alterations induced by heavy
Table 2. Main pathogenetic mechanisms and alterations induced by heavy metals during prenatal
dant due to human activities, with a 1.5% increase in atmospheric Hg. Mercury is mostly
found that 8.5% of patients had an increase in Cd concentration. Specifically, the highest
concentration of Cd (12.1%) was found in children aged between 0 and 3 years in con-
rides (<10% of total carbohydrate);

Methods (brief)

Pregnancy obesity can also affect a newborn’s microbiota. In fact, meconium samples
levels of sex hormones and cortisol in amniotic fluid samples from male autistic patients
spring (88). Additionally, various studies have evaluated blood and hair samples of ASD
in hair samples of ASD children, finding a notable increase compared with neurotypical
1. Berti, C.; Biesalski, H.K.; Gärtner, R.; Lapillonne, A.; Pietrzik, K.; Poston, L.; Redman, C.; Koletzko, B.; Cetin, I. Micronutrients in
1. Zoroddu, M.A.; Aaseth, J.; Crisponi, G.; Medici, S.; Peana, M.; Nurchi, V.M. The Essential Metals for Humans: A Brief Overview.
1. Skogheim, T.S.; Weyde, K.V.F.; Engel, S.M.; Aase, H.; Surén, P.; Øie, M.G.; Biele, G.; Reichborn-Kjennerud, T.; Caspersen, I.H.;
1. Henn, B.C.; Ettinger, A.S.; Schwartz, J.; Téllez-Rojo, M.M.; Lamadrid-Figueroa, H.; Hernández-Avila, M.; Schnaas, L.; Ama-
S.; Al-Said, M.F.; et al. Levels of Heavy Metals and Essential Minerals in Hair Samples of Children with Autism in Oman: A
1. Bjørklund, G.; Skalny, A.V.; Rahman, M.M.; Dadar, M.; Yassa, H.A.; Aaseth, J.; Chirumbolo, S.; Skalnaya, M.G.; Tinkov, A.A. Toxic

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Update history

The five most recent substantive edits to this page, classified major (evidence or structure moved), correction (a published value or statement was wrong and has been fixed), or minor (narrative rewritten without changing the underlying evidence). Each description is derived from what the edit did to this page; the linked commit is the authoritative record, routine regeneration passes are excluded, and the full version history lives in git. When DOI minting comes online (see schema docs), each entry below will also link to a version-pinned DataCite DOI.

Commit	Date	Change	Description
b01ec52c	2026-08-04	major	2 sections added
d49e450f	2026-08-03	major	5 sections added; narrative text revised