Summary
This 2025 narrative review from Italian authors synthesizes the toxicokinetics, speciation toxicology, regulatory landscape, and dietary exposure science of arsenic in food and water. The review is primarily relevant for its compilation of EU and US regulatory maximum levels, its summary of IARC and EFSA carcinogenicity and risk characterisation, and its overview of arsenic speciation in key food matrices (rice, seafood, drinking water, infant formula).
Key numbers
Regulatory maximum levels compiled from primary instruments:
- EU Commission Regulation 2023/915: non-parboiled milled rice 150 ug/kg inorganic arsenic (iAs); parboiled/husked rice/flour 250 ug/kg; rice-based beverages (non-alcoholic) 30 ug/kg; infant formula powder 20 ug/kg; liquid infant formula 10 ug/kg; baby food 20 ug/kg; fruit juices/nectars 20 ug/kg; rice destined for infants/young children 100 ug/kg; rice cakes/crackers/flakes/popped rice 300 ug/kg
- FDA: infant rice cereal 100 ug/kg iAs; apple juice 10 ug/kg iAs
- WHO drinking water guideline: 10 ug/L
- EFSA 2024 health benchmark (BMDL05 for 5% skin cancer benchmark response): 0.06 ug iAs/kg bw/day
- MOE at 95th percentile dietary exposure for infants and toddlers across 23 EU countries: all below 1 (health concern cannot be excluded by EFSA criteria)
Speciation context from review:
- Rice iAs as share of total arsenic (As): typically approximately 55% (organic species and dimethylarsinic acid accounting for remainder)
- Seafood As: predominantly organic arsenicals (arsenobetaine dominant); iAs less than 5% of total As in marine fish muscle
- Urinary As methylation profile: iAs 10-30%, MMA 10-20%, DMA 60-80% (general population with dietary rice/water exposure)
Methods
Narrative review. No primary measurements. Regulatory values drawn from EU Official Journal, FDA guidance documents, WHO guideline publications. EFSA 2024 updated risk assessment and IARC Group 1 classification cited for toxicological context.
Implications
Provides a compact reference for EU and US regulatory maximum levels and for the EFSA 2024 health benchmark. The MOE finding (all below 1 for infants/toddlers in all 23 EU countries) is a key regulatory risk signal cited across multiple papers in this deposit unit. The iAs fraction of rice total arsenic (~55%) figure supports cross-study comparisons.
Related evidence
- Arsenic, Inorganic
- Arsenic, Total
- Rice
- EU Regulation 2023/915 maximum levels for contaminants in food
Update history
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