A comprehensive review on infant

Overview

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Key numbers

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for breast milk to feed young children or infants between composition involves 87–88% water, 1.0% protein, 3.8% fat and about
0–36 months of age (16). Milk formulas are distinguished into three 7% lactose (29). Lactose and fat majorly contribute to total energy
vegetable oils, micronutrients, and some other additives (17, 18). absorption (21). Human milk possesses two classes of protein, namely
reach and product ranges (7). In 2021, the infant formula market Besides human milk, bovine milk is also a good source of fats and
of over 10% between 2022 to 2030, driven by the increased human milk. Also, the lactose content of human milk is approximately
prevalence of premature birth (22). A few players, including Nestle, 7 percent (involving 1% of oligosaccharides (OSs)), while bovine milk
Danone, Abbott, FrieslandCampina and Heinz, dominate the IF has a 4.5% lactose content. In contrast, the amount of whey protein
market. Together, these companies control nearly 60% global IF in both kinds of milk is approximately similar (32). The casein in
and higher serum protein. Even the lysozyme level of donkey milk is generally small in size and range from 2–50 amino acid residues, and
TABLE 1 Nutritional composition of milk from different species used in infant formula formulation.
In another investigative work, Chen et al. (54) utilized used as a protein source. Mainly vegetable fats are used as the fat
showed an ACE-inhibitory activity of 88.91%, and after purification physiological properties of the IF to be developed. Numerous clinical
by RP-HPLC and ultrafiltration, it displayed 91.62% ACE inhibitory trials have been conducted to determine the efficacy of these elements
activity. Pei et al. (55) hydrolyzed yak milk by the action of pepsin, and in the formulation of IF; some of them are mentioned in Table 2.
TABLE 2 Clinical research conducted on the inclusion of various components in formulations of infant formula.
monkey (n = 30) glutamate) in isocaloric but regular protein (2.1 g performance improved.
old) (n = 32) regulatory balance compared to formulation 1.
Osteopontin Crossbred piglets (n = 48) The bovine milk is fortified with vitamins & minerals Feeding period: 19 days Osteopontin supplementation above basal levels of bovine milk (194)
(15 g/L), electrolytes (6 g/L) and osteopontin (319 mg/L). induced minor gut structure improvement & systemic immunity
LC-PUFA (n = 259) α-lactalbumin enriched whey & LC-PUFA on anthropometry evaluated at 4 years of age.
DHA/ARA Healthy infants (≤9 days old) Formula consisting of 0.64% of total fatty acids as ARA During infancy Supplementation of IF with ARA & DHA in the first year of an (197)
(n = 91) and either 0.32, 0.64, or 0.96% of total fatty acids as infant’s life has a protective effect against allergy and also delays
(n = 233) ARA/100 kcal and 17 mg of DHA/100 kcal. age bronchiolitis, cough, and diarrhea.
(n = 89) DHA /100 kcal. activation markers & their subsequent function.
gestational age) (n = 203) lutein/ zeaxanthin, β-carotene & lycopene carotenoids at menstrual age supplementation and was similar to that of human milk-fed infants.
concentration of 211, 219, and 143 μg/L, respectively. The supplemented group also displayed increased sensitivity of the
TABLE 2 (Continued)
Pre & Pro-biotics, Infants (0–2 months) Supplementation with MFGM (10% of the total protein Feeding during the first Compared to breastfeeding, experimental IF had a similar impact on (202)
lactis (n = 32) 1 × 106 CFU/g. healthy early pattern of weight gain.
(n = 90) 0.3, 7.1, 0.8 & 0.6 g/100 mL. The postbiotics concentration intestinal microbiota composition, bringing the resulting fecal
was 30% of dry wt. & contained 3′-galactosyllactoses. metabolite profile of IF-fed infants closer to that of breast-fed ones.
32 months) (n = 3,847) children. The total number of days having acute respiratory
(n = 260) both fortified IF & breastfed infants.
age) (n = 240) with bovine osteopontin @ 65 mg/L or 130 mg /L. of amino acids, making them more similar to breastfed infants. The
Choline & DHA Preterm infants (<32-week Enteral nutrition is given @ 30 mg/kg/day choline and Feeding period: 10 days In combination with DHA, choline increases DHA- (209)
post-menstrual age) (n = 24) 10 mg/kg/day DHA. phosphatidylcholine more than DHA alone, which might improve
(n = 91) increase glycoside level by 2–3 mg/100 g. cognitive development in healthy infants
(<1 week old) (n = 25) carnitine serum and improved lipid metabolism.
presented in Table 1. Besides, the concentration of HMOSs is 5–20 g/L, protein quality is generally assessed by protein-digestibility-corrected
30–60 mg/L, sheep 20–40 mg/L, goat 60–350 mg/L and donkey such as the values of PDCAAS are calculated on the fecal digestibility
250–300 mg/L, respectively (67, 68). The bovine colostrum (day 0) basis of the crude protein, and the digestibility of amino acids is
that caprine milk OSs decreased with lactation stage like at 488 mg/L digestibility is generally based on the true ileal digestibility in rat or

Methods (brief)

alternative formulas can be the disorders related to carbohydrate resistant to digestion were found in human and sheep’s milk. The
by RP-HPLC and ultrafiltration, it displayed 91.62% ACE inhibitory trials have been conducted to determine the efficacy of these elements
The Human milk OSs (HMOS) are resisted for digestion in the upper partially or fully hydrolyzed whey proteins and demineralized
i.e., higher than the milk of other domesticated animals, e.g., bovine amino acid scores (PDCAAS) (87). This method has some limitations,
30–60 mg/L, sheep 20–40 mg/L, goat 60–350 mg/L and donkey such as the values of PDCAAS are calculated on the fecal digestibility
milk matures (days 3–5) (69). Martin-Ortiz et al. (70) demonstrated scores (DIAAS) to replace PDCAAS. In DIAAS method, the
Moreover, the biosynthetic pathways of HMOSs are considerably Mathai et al. (88) reported the values of DIAAS demonstrated in pigs
(74). Contrary to that, porcine milk has a higher concentration of (89), the kinetics of DIAAS and true ileal digestion of protein were
similar to human milk OSs (45, 66). Lacto-N-biose unit, regarded as digestion kinetics of GIF was more comparable to HM than the
upon molecular weight, chemical complexity, route of exposure and chromatography mass spectrometry (LC–MS) or High Performance
Bioaccessibility is the fraction of compound liberated during digestion be added to the products of HTST pasteurization.
organic compounds like amino acid chelators has been exploited. For lactoferrin, is resistant to in-vivo gastric digestion, and this
depicted that the particle size of aggregates/droplets was smaller in the possessed by bioactive peptides, which are released after the digestion
CAP Non-fat dairy Samples were treated for 0 to 120 s, and N2 was C. sakazakii The inactivation increased as the flow rate Even after 120 s-CAP treatment, no significant (304)
also serve as prebiotics and affect the composition of gut microbiota. and protein digestion (352).
TN, et al. Burden of childhood malnutrition: a roadmap of global and European policies
(2020):19–31. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-36762-6_2 28. Punia H, Tokas J, Malik A, Sangwan S, Baloda S, Singh N, et al. Identification and
in support of the World Health Organization statement on breastfeeding during the 35. Lagutin K, MacKenzie A, Bloor S, Scott D, Vyssotski M. HPLC-MS, GC and NMR

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Update history

The five most recent substantive edits to this page, classified major (evidence or structure moved), correction (a published value or statement was wrong and has been fixed), or minor (narrative rewritten without changing the underlying evidence). Each description is derived from what the edit did to this page; the linked commit is the authoritative record, routine regeneration passes are excluded, and the full version history lives in git. When DOI minting comes online (see schema docs), each entry below will also link to a version-pinned DataCite DOI.

Commit	Date	Change	Description
b01ec52c	2026-08-04	major	2 sections added
d49e450f	2026-08-03	major	5 sections added; narrative text revised