for remediation of Cr(VI) contaminated Hexavalent chromium is a highly noxious and mobile environmental pollutant

Overview

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revealed that the uppermost soil layers exhibit elevated levels of remediation strategies (Table 1).
TABLE 1 Major sources and ecological impact of Cr(VI) contamination across industrial regions in India.
Up to 1050 mg/L (leachate), Large-scale surface and groundwater
Chhattisgarh 22 mg/L (surface water), 0.26 contamination, acute health effects in (Banchhor et al., 2020)
Bhavnagar Coast, Shipbreaking, municipal discharge, Mean Cr: 42 mg/kg in
Industrialization (various Mean Cr: 44 mg/kg in
biochar matrix (Wang et al., 2023). Bamboo and its products of ceramics, cement, chemicals, pigments, and steel (Table 2). The
Chromium (Cr) is a relatively abundant transition metal that followed by waste and wastewater management (90.99 tons, 10.9%),
has been extensively employed across diverse industrial contexts. It metal processing and production (18.50 tons, 2.2%), chemical
belongs to the d−block element of group 6 within the periodic table, manufacturing (17.89 tons, 2.1%), minerals (3.99 tons, 0.5%), and
exhibiting several characteristic physical properties, including a paper and wood production (2.43 tons, 0.3%). Individual member
TABLE 2 Production of Cr(VI) from different sources and their respective mode of exposure.
to hydroxides of Mn(IV) via two enzyme-based electron transfer Supplementary Table 3 summarizes representative microbes
concentrations in the μM to mM range that compete with Cr(VI) to water as the chromate anion(CrO 4 2- ), whereas Cr(III) is
various abiotic and biotic factors (Table 3). When introduced into composition further constrain biotransformation potential, thereby
TABLE 3 Key soil factors inﬂuencing chromium(VI) mobility and transformation.
conditions favor the formation of more stable Cr(III). chromium in soils (Amanatidou, 2023).
ulceration, allergies, dermatitis, bronchitis, asthma, DNA damage, hepatic tissues, and pose reproductive toxicity (Table 5). Cr(VI)
cellular injury (Zhigalenok et al., 2025). affects a wide range of terrestrial and aquatic animals. Exposure
(Table 4). Its presence disrupts critical soil enzymes, hampers intracellular reduction to Cr(III), generation of reactive oxygen
TABLE 4 Cr(VI)-induced toxicity across different biological domains.
TABLE 5 Systemic toxicity and mechanisms of Cr(VI) exposure.
such as brain injury, decreased AChE activity, and systemic (Zulﬁqar et al., 2023) (Table 7). The ion is taken up by roots
altered metabolic pathways, and carcinogenicity (Table 6). For cellular components, disrupting cell division, and causing
TABLE 6 Mechanisms and effect of Chromium (VI) exposure in various groups of animals.
TABLE 7 Mechanisms and effect of chromium (VI) exposure in different plants.
Echinochloa colona Soil/root uptake 25% reduction in seed germination Protease activation, amylase inhibition (Rout et al., 2000)
TABLE 8 Mechanisms and effects of chromium (VI) exposure in various microbial species.
(Table 8). However, high levels of Cr(VI) typically cause reduced chromium from the cell (Arishi and Mashhour, 2021).
efﬁciency of Cr(VI) adsorption ranges between 80 – 99%, with faster presented in Table 9, highlights their mechanisms, advantages,
on this aspect and are documented under Supplementary Table 4. compromise environmental sustainability due to secondary
TABLE 9 Comparative assessment of Cr(VI) remediation strategies.
hosting more than 50% of India’s bamboo species (Das et al., America and Africa (Worldwide distribution of bamboo, 2025).
hectares of the Indian forests, which constitute nearly 12.8% of the Extraordinary mechanical properties of bamboo include
Bamboo is concentrated in Asia which has 65% of the world wood, and are mostly made of cellulose (Kumar et al., 2023b).
high elevations up to 4000 meters (Dutta et al., 2025). The total area and up to 12 tons per hectare yearly. Meanwhile, bamboo produces
of the bamboo forests consists of over 36 million hectares 35% more oxygen than a tree, thus improving air quality
ranges (Xu et al., 2020). While bamboo offers many environmental environments by combining phytostabilization and
TABLE 10 Comparison of phytoremedial potential of bamboo with other plant hyperaccumulators.
(Ranieri et al., 2021). The Table 10 provides a comparative account bioavailability and environmental mobility of chromium, thereby
5.1 Bamboo as a natural adsorbent of concentrations as high as 200–300 mg/kg. Other bamboo species
asper, D. birmanicus, and D. membranaceus exhibited a 100%

Methods (brief)

very porous material. removal of the hexavalent chromium from a sample of efﬂuent,
activated carbon from biomass for the treatment of wastewater: A critical review. real water sample and bio-imaging. Can. J. Chem. Eng. 98, 194–204. doi: 10.1002/

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The five most recent substantive edits to this page, classified major (evidence or structure moved), correction (a published value or statement was wrong and has been fixed), or minor (narrative rewritten without changing the underlying evidence). Each description is derived from what the edit did to this page; the linked commit is the authoritative record, routine regeneration passes are excluded, and the full version history lives in git. When DOI minting comes online (see schema docs), each entry below will also link to a version-pinned DataCite DOI.

Commit	Date	Change	Description
b01ec52c	2026-08-04	major	2 sections added
d49e450f	2026-08-03	major	5 sections added; narrative text revised