Departamento de Investigación en Toxicología y Medicina Ambiental, Instituto Nacional de

Overview

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Key numbers

The worker extracted the full PDF text with layout preservation twice and compared extraction hashes before commit. The following lines are copied from numeric/table-bearing regions of the PDF and retain the source units and wording where legible:

Loaeza-Román A and Sierra-Vargas MP been attributed to lung cancer, which is present in 15% of patients at the time of
fluid. Approximately 35% of MPE are secondary to LC, with significant difference. Furthermore, an elevated concentration of
secondary diagnosis, present in 23% of MPE cases, while lymphomas did not demonstrate statistical significance. With respect to
account for up to 10% of MPE cases (Pardessus-Otero et al., 2024). antioxidant activity, an increase in Superoxide Dismutase activity
1,761,000 deaths (18.4% of all cancer-related deaths). The number anthropogenic origin identified in pleural effusions has the
approximately 6.7 million premature deaths annually (World indicated a notable correlation between elevated RD mortality rates
0.7%, 1.3%, and 0.2% increase in excess mortality, respectively. The
metalloids to the composition of PM2.5 and 2 days were observed, resulting in excess mortality risks of 2.0%
and 0.9%, respectively. Similarly, Kebe et al. (2025) revealed that
PM2.5 is a heterogeneous mixture of complex components short-term exposure to PM10 was associated with a 1.2% increase in
comprised of water-soluble inorganic ions (account for 30%–50% relative risk (RR) for respiratory mortality in children, under five
of the total mass), carbon compounds as organic carbon (OC), was 1.4%. Furthermore, the assessment of HM exposure through
20%–50%). Among these carbon components, OC and EC determination of the hazard index (HI) and carcinogenic risk (CR).
account for 10%–70% of the carbon mass, while CC contributes In both cases, the HI values for Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, V, and Zn were
water, the organic composition of PM2.5 can be categorized into two Pb were determined to be outside the regulatory range of 10–6 and
persistent organic pollutants, chemicals that persist in the children surpassed 10–4, predominantly attributable to As and Cr.
Molybdenum (Mo), Niobium (Nb), Nickel (Ni), Lead (Pb), concomitant rise of 1.3% in cardiovascular mortality and 0.9% in
population attributable risk was estimated for a reduction in greater than 10 μm are primarily deposited in the extrathoracic
metals on diseases such as LC. Table 1 presents a comprehensive list endocytosis by phagocytes or epithelial cells. All of these
the human respiratory tract was distributed as follows: 0.5% in the
The principal mechanisms responsible for airborne particle pulmonary region, 2% in the tracheobronchial region, and 97.5% in
TABLE 1 Metals associated with toxicity and lung pathogenesis disorders.
TABLE 1 Continued
TABLE 1 Continued
deposition rate was observed in the medial (53%) and inferior (8%) the inhalation of PM, with differing distribution patterns for
segments when compared to the superior (39%) segment. The various elements. As Zhang et al. (2022) have demonstrated,
Dines et al. (1972) conducted a study to evaluate the levels of median concentrations of Cu and Mo were higher than the reference
metals in two groups of pleural fluid: 86 patients with benign disease range for blood levels or within this range. The concentrations of Zn
general, lower (25%–55%) than in the corresponding serum. The airborne metals and metalloids
TABLE 2 Identification of airborne metals in MPE and BPE.
Domej et al. (2000a) Cu (µg/kg) 720 (220–1,520) 520 (58–1,390) NR
NO2 (ppb) 20.3 ± 3.2 19.6 ± 3.4 NS
SO2 (ppb) 3.2 ± 0.7 3.0 ± 0.7 NS
The results indicate the mean ± standard deviation, the median value (minimum-maximum values), and a not-significant difference, P > 0.05 (NS), not reported (NR).
4.3 ± 0.8 gm%, respectively. In BPE, the mean levels were is categorized as an acute-phase protein. A substantial increase in the
15.4 IU/L, and 4.1 ± 0.5 gm%, respectively. Furthermore, Yadav compared to transudate fluid. MDA has been identified as a
specificity of pleural fluid ROMO1 were 61.5% and 82.0%, squamous cell carcinoma). The concentration of MDA was found
serum ROMO1 were only 41.4% and 86.2%, respectively. These antioxidant response of the lungs to the chronic release of ROS, as
these antioxidants is attributable to analogous mechanisms (Kinnula and Crapo, 2003). As illustrated in Table 3, the studies
patients (90%) and five female patients (5%), while the healthy system (Ghoneum et al., 2020). The process of metal carcinogenesis
volunteer cohort included 41 male volunteers (82%) and nine female occurs through the involvement of two distinct stages. In the initial
volunteers (18%). A general finding of the study was that the thiol stage of metal-induced carcinogenesis or cell transformation,

Methods (brief)

poorest prognosis, with an average survival time of only two to design, sample handling, analytical techniques, and reporting
term exposure to high levels of such particles (Lodovici and Bigagli, Air pollution is defined as a mixture of hazardous substances
the disease. (21 patients) in pleural fluid samples from 105 patients. Overall, the
LDH, and TP were elevated in MPE samples, exhibiting a mean level exudative fluid compared to the transudate effusion. C-reactive
comparison to the first group. In the same way, Ethemoğlu et al. samples from patients suffering from LC, tuberculosis, CHF, and
mitochondrial matrix (Yordanov and Tsoneva, 2025). As noted by (2019) examined a sample of 53 individuals and found that the
Durak et al. (1996) Cu/Zn SOD (U/ml) 4.42 ± 2.69 NS (No sample) <0.0005
Mn SOD (U/ml) 3.43 ± 1.32 NS (No sample) <0.0005
Total SOD (U/ml) 7.8 ± 2.4 NS (No sample) <0.0005
activity has been identified in MPE compared to BPE samples. It is ROS have been observed to regulate various signaling pathways,
between transudative and exudative pleural effusions. Int. J. Clin. Pract. 75 (4), e14051. Lodovici, M., and Bigagli, E. (2011). Oxidative stress and air pollution exposure.
Plum, L. M., Rink, L., and Haase, H. (2010). The essential toxin: impact of zinc on health risk assessment. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health B. Crit. Rev. 9 (1), 63–85. doi:10.1080/

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Update history

The five most recent substantive edits to this page, classified major (evidence or structure moved), correction (a published value or statement was wrong and has been fixed), or minor (narrative rewritten without changing the underlying evidence). Each description is derived from what the edit did to this page; the linked commit is the authoritative record, routine regeneration passes are excluded, and the full version history lives in git. When DOI minting comes online (see schema docs), each entry below will also link to a version-pinned DataCite DOI.

Commit	Date	Change	Description
b01ec52c	2026-08-04	major	2 sections added
d49e450f	2026-08-03	major	5 sections added; narrative text revised