Ariane Krause 1 & Franziska Häfner & Florian Augustin & Kai M. Udert

Overview

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Key numbers

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feces contribute 70–80% of N and up to 60% of P in urban municipal wastewater (7, 8). In the
fecal-oral pathway appears to be low (42, 43), there is a wide range of other pathogens
as part of the large microbial content of feces: 25–54% of dry matter (DM) of feces consist
pathogens are summarized in Table 1, and classified according to epidemiological risk:
Table 1 Pathogens excreted with human feces and their epidemiological relevance according to the WHO (19)
presented in Table 2. Of these, only Schistosoma haematobium poses a high epidemiological
Table 2 Human urine-related pathogens and their epidemiological relevance (16, 19)
Table 3 summarizes literature values for concentrations of heavy metals in human urine,
leafy vegetables can absorb Cd from the soil during cultivation (74). In the case of tobacco in
Table 3 Heavy metal content in human urine, feces, and other waste streams or recycling fertilizers. The values
between 2002 and 2009 (82). This corresponds to an increase of ~30%, whereas the use of
strated increases of several to 1,000% within 6 years (83). The pharmaceuticals also end up in
Table 4 Ranges of concentrations of pharmaceutical residues in different substrates, where (n) depicts the number of data (11, 82, 99–104)
stances. In summary, Table 4 shows that pharmaceutical loads in urine vary widely, which
can shift the pharmaceutical contents towards the minimum values seen in Table 4 (ibid.).
They found that RQ was far below 1 for trimethoprim and diclofenac, which means that the risk is
Most relevant plant micro- and macronutrients can be found in urine and feces (Table 5).
Humans excrete nutrients mostly via the urine: ~90% of N, 50 to 65% of P, and 50 to 80%
Table 5 Nutrient contents in human urine, feces, and other waste streams or recycling fertilizers. The values
Bio-waste compost (64, 66, 10.0±7.9 1.1±0.3 3.0±2.5 7.9±5.5 5.8±8.3 90 (n=1)
trations (Table 5) (145). However, potential negative impacts on seed germination and
proportion of N use efficiency compared to mineral NPK fertilizer, can reach 82% (152).
(Table 6). Liquid materials can be pumped and can be spread using techniques that are already
suitable (167). In general, following application, a superficial incorporation (e.g., with a
Table 6 Proportion of DM in FM for human urine, feces, and other waste streams or recycling fertilizers. The
Organic waste compost (64, 66, 127–129) 62.8±2.0 (n=5)
Gardening waste compost (26, 66, 68, 70, 128–131) 53.3±11.7 (n=7)
with a DM content of <2% of FM (176); (iv) low-emission application techniques such as drag
important obstacle to direct application. It should be noted that NH3 loss as well as malodors
Composting on a small scale (<5 m3 year−1) usually takes place in the mesophilic range
paper were found in a range of 0.0018–0.180 μg g−1 and evaluated to be of minor importance
horticultural suitability of operational additives. Table 7 summarizes the nutrient concentra-
comparison to human feces and food waste, with about 35% and 45% of the DM, respectively
Table 7 Nutrient contents in human urine and feces and in additives used for composting. The values are given
materials and contributes to stable C build-up in the soil (237). This material can also improve
(0–10 mm) and are largely free of extraneous materials should be used in vegetable
Table 8 gives an overview of some environmentally relevant active substances in human
Table 8 Active pharmaceutical substances from drugs for human use found in surface waters in Brandenburg
Table 9 Pharmaceutical substances as indicator substances in sewage sludge analyses (109)
manure from the UBA database (105) contained in Table 4:
sewage treatment plants) and resulting database entries n=1 117
& Solid manure (manure dung) was not shown in Table 4 for simplification, as it was largely

Methods (brief)

source” is the use of dry toilets (DTs), in which human excreta are collected without or very
properties of the contents collected in DTs and any processing-related additive, the focus of
It should be noted that these classes of materials are not always collected separately, but
content of pathogens, urine collected in urine-separating toilets can be more critical. Due to the
feces, but also via vomit (19). However, the amounts of vomit collected in DTs is normally
conditions, only small amounts of vomit are collected in DTs. The risk associated with fresh
to injuries or with vomit make up a small amount of the total mass collected in the DT. It can
feces collected in DTs will not only improve the quality of the derived fertilizers, but it will
residues in human feces; data for separately collected urine (e.g., from separation toilets) were
depends on whether the sample is from family homes, residential complexes, or public urinals.
important obstacle to direct application. It should be noted that NH3 loss as well as malodors
blood, or vomit. If toilet paper is not collected and disposed of separately, it becomes part of
targeted elimination of pharmaceuticals from separately collected urine, e.g.,
& Sample matrix (“matrix”):
anaerobic digestion. Bioresour Technol 98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2006.02.039
including anaerobic digestion of food waste and cultivation of vegetables on digestate in a bubble-insulated
tion treatments: anaerobic and aerobic digestion, wastewater stabilization ponds and composting. Sci Total
mass spectrometry. Anal Methods 9. https://doi.org/10.1039/c7ay01801k

Implications

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Update history

The five most recent substantive edits to this page, classified major (evidence or structure moved), correction (a published value or statement was wrong and has been fixed), or minor (narrative rewritten without changing the underlying evidence). Each description is derived from what the edit did to this page; the linked commit is the authoritative record, routine regeneration passes are excluded, and the full version history lives in git. When DOI minting comes online (see schema docs), each entry below will also link to a version-pinned DataCite DOI.

Commit	Date	Change	Description
b01ec52c	2026-08-04	major	2 sections added
d49e450f	2026-08-03	major	5 sections added; narrative text revised