and trade repercussions. Regular, economical and straightforward feed testing is critical to reach a

Overview

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produced by EU compounders, accounting for 80% of all of the purchased feedstuffs. Feed supply and
have been carried out to evaluate the incidence of mycotoxin contamination. On a global level, 30% to
ingredients in animal compound feed. Average inclusion rates of 48% and 11.5% of cereals and
feed were the main components of the diet, representing an average 67% and 23% of the dry matter
seed, sorghum, cassava, peanut, copra, etc.; 12% of the total analyzed samples) (9–13,23,24). The overall
values of positive samples higher than 30%). The highest incidence of DON contamination (more
values of positive samples higher than 30%). The highest incidence of DON contamination (more than
than 60% of positive samples) was found in samples from North America, Northern and Central
60% of positive samples) was found in samples from North America, Northern and Central Europe,
Europe, Africa and North Asia. The highest incidence of ZEA contamination (more than 30% of
50% of Southeast
prevalence was highest in South Asia and Africa (more than 50% of positive samples).
was highest in South Asia and Africa (more than 50% of positive samples). Range values of various
Table 1. Mycotoxins (ppb) in feed material and feedstuffs surveyed worldwide (adapted from (25)).
most stringent EU maximum level of 5 µg/kg aflatoxin B1 applicable to feed for dairy animals (36).
in 17%, 15%, 3.2% and 0.9% of the samples, respectively, an important topic raised from several
a high incidence of 30% to 100% of analyzed samples that were contaminated with two or more
was more prevalent in samples from Asia (82%) than in samples from Europe and America (40%).
food and feed among its member nations (Table 2) (56,57). Maximum levels and guidance values for
Recommendation 2006/576/EC (58) (Table 3). In the case of lots intended for industrial purposes
Table 2. Maximum levels for mycotoxins in cereals and cereal products for human consumption ((60,61)).
Table 3. Maximum levels and guidance levels for mycotoxins in products intended for animal feed ((36,58,61)).
share was 26% for the feed industry, 34% for on-farm feed use, 23% for food/human consumption,
4% for biofuel production, 2% for seed production, and 8% for other internal use (14). To sustain the
from almost 100%
NIV,from to 7%
100% for NIV, and from 7% to 40% for ZEA, of the contamination level in unclean grains (77–80). of 62% and 53% of
of 62% and 53%has beenand
15% to 78% has been reported (77,84–86). To the best of our knowledge, the effect of debranning on
(bran, flour shorts screenings and middlings) compared to that in wheat grain may be up to 800% but
more typically ranges from 150% to 340% (15). These results have been confirmed more recently by
Tibola et al. (88), who reported an average distribution factor of 130% and 190% for DON and ZEA in
from the industrial dry-milling process of 356% and 288% compared to that in corn grain has been
grain, ranges from 200% to 350% (96,97,101). Burger et al. (102) have confirmed this distribution pattern
animal diets and formulas. As reported above, byproducts represent about 11.5% of the compound
more mycotoxins. Of the 409 samples that were analyzed, 2%, 8%, 2% and 1% of the DDGS samples
exceeded the European feed limits or recommended values for AFB1 (20 µg/kg), DON (12,000 µg/kg),
fumonisins (5 mg/kg) and ZEA (3,000 µg/kg), respectively. No samples exceeded the threshold levels
barley to malt has been observed at rates ranging from 4% to 87% (129,131). Lancova et al. (17) studied
Argentina were contaminated with FB1 , whereas AFB1 was found in 18% of brewer’s spent grain, and
Table 4. Factors affecting mycotoxin contamination in animal feed materials according to the industrial
controls, and criteria for reporting and interpretation of the results (140). A wide range of analytical

Methods (brief)

international trade. A high percentage of feed samples have been reported to be contaminated
100% of food and feed samples are co-contaminated (9–13). Therefore, when we consider the exposure
seed, sorghum, cassava, peanut, copra, etc.; 12% of the total analyzed samples) (9–13,23,24). The overall
Figure 1. Worldwide mycotoxin occurrence (percentage of mycotoxin contaminated samples) in raw feed
Figure 1. Worldwide mycotoxin occurrence (percentage of mycotoxin contaminated samples) in raw
values of positive samples higher than 30%). The highest incidence of DON contamination (more
values of positive samples higher than 30%). The highest incidence of DON contamination (more than
than 60% of positive samples) was found in samples from North America, Northern and Central
60% of positive samples) was found in samples from North America, Northern and Central Europe,
prevalence was highest in South Asia and Africa (more than 50% of positive samples).
was highest in South Asia and Africa (more than 50% of positive samples). Range values of various
of the analyzed samples, the years of the surveys, and the annual weather fluctuations. Mycotoxin
of beauvericin in feed ingredients and samples of compound feeds from East Asian countries (30).
17% of the aflatoxin-tested samples, coming from different world regions, did not comply with the
in 17%, 15%, 3.2% and 0.9% of the samples, respectively, an important topic raised from several
a high incidence of 30% to 100% of analyzed samples that were contaminated with two or more
was more prevalent in samples from Asia (82%) than in samples from Europe and America (40%).
Multi-mycotoxin contamination is a topic of great concern, as co-contaminated samples might still exert

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Update history

The five most recent substantive edits to this page, classified major (evidence or structure moved), correction (a published value or statement was wrong and has been fixed), or minor (narrative rewritten without changing the underlying evidence). Each description is derived from what the edit did to this page; the linked commit is the authoritative record, routine regeneration passes are excluded, and the full version history lives in git. When DOI minting comes online (see schema docs), each entry below will also link to a version-pinned DataCite DOI.

Commit	Date	Change	Description
b01ec52c	2026-08-04	major	2 sections added
d49e450f	2026-08-03	major	5 sections added; narrative text revised