an “alyson” that appeared to be confined to serpentine soils,

Overview

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Key numbers

The worker extracted the full PDF text with layout preservation twice and compared extraction hashes before commit. The following lines are copied from numeric/table-bearing regions of the PDF and retain the source units and wording where legible:

defined phytoremediation as the use of green plants to remove reaches concentrations of at least 100 mg kg−1 (0.01 % dry
pollutants from the environment or to render them harmless. wt.) Cd and As; 1,000 mg kg−1 (0.1 % dry wt.) Co, Cu, Cr,
Phytoremediation may be applied to soils that are contami- Ni, and Pb; and 10,000 mg kg−1 (1 % dry wt.) Mn and Zn in
(b) phytotransformation, and (c) phytostabilization. This <0.2 % of all angiosperms most of which are Ni hyperaccu-
intractable soil contaminants. In 1993, McGrath et al. proposed that hyperaccumulators
bound pollutants by wind and water erosion and to reduce 100–110 % from 2005 to 2050 (Tilman et al. 2011); thus,
runoff and water flow into the subsurface and (b) to minimize tion has to increase by about 60 % globally and nearly 77 %
2006). This change of concept means that quite different According to the FAO, out of the world’s 13.5 bn ha of total
(2011) estimated that by 2020, 12 % of the global coarse Contaminated land, which is not suitable for food pro-
grain production as well as 33 % of the sugar production will duction, is in contrast to “marginal” land often not used eco-
be used to produce ethanol. Additionally, 16 % of the global nomically at all; thus, it could also be considered as a
increase up to 3.5 % by 2030 (Haralambous et al. 2009). vative, as the extent of contaminated land in poor countries
the food chain, excluder species are desirable. In all cases the Evangelou et al. 2012, 2013) (Table 9.1). Birch is a pioneer
Table 9.1 Bioaccumulation factors of potential trees for phytomanagement
because it is sensitive to industrial pollution (Kosinska and accumulates approximately 50 % less TE in the stalks than in
1. (Table 9.4). But due to this slow growth, they are not species (Kayser et al. 2000; Keller et al. 2003; Wenger et al.
wood is valuable. Maple (Acer spp.) shows a low propensity were found to range from <0.5 to 5 mg Cd kg−1 (Lugon-
processing. Using crops for the phytomanagement of con- (Vamerali et al. 2010) (Table 9.4).
nate human food (Table 9.2 and 9.3). Perennial grasses have been widely used for centuries as fod-
Table 9.2 Bioaccumulation factors of potential agricultural crops for phytomanagement
Table 9.2 (continued)
Table 9.3 Bioaccumulation factors of potential perennial grasses for phytomanagement
sive (Table 9.3). Thus, a conclusion, about which perennial of an As-, Hg-, Cu-, Cr-, Pb-, and Cd-contaminated soil. The
Table 9.4 Suitability, positive (+) or negative (−), of various potential directly as heat (plants, wood, straw, and other plants) or
Giant reed (Arundo donax) is a tolerant plant species for Cd barrel−1. This means that bioethanol production is not
of 1–2 % annual increase until 2030. The global demand
10–50 years before they become harvestable. Eucalyptus but lower than biochar produced at 550 °C. Mercury and Cd
(Evangelou et al. 2012, 2013). means that it will in general not be possible to produce
Cd, 90 mg kg−1 Pb, 25 mg kg−1 As, and 40 mg kg−1 Cu duced from plant biomass can be kept low with a suitable
cumulators, with the majority (approximately 90 %) being ing plant material that otherwise is too dangerous as direct Se
tion are water (56 %) and wind erosion (28 %). Other forms Other agricultural management factors that have a major
sum up to 16 %. In total soil degradation affects about whether crop residues are left on the field and incorporated
2,000 M ha of land, which is equivalent to 15 % of the Earth’s into the soil as well as tillage practices. While there can be
overgrazing (35 %), deforestation (30 %), agricultural activi- loss (Anderson-Teixeira et al. 2009; Williams et al. 2009),
ties (27 %), overexploitation of vegetation (7 %), and indus- whereas crop residues that are left on the land protect the soil
trial activities (1 %) (UNEP 2002). Increased biofuel against erosion and SOC loss. If residues are completely
large rainforest areas. In the United States, 1.3 M ha of lands sidered a partial removal of 25 % of stover as the maximum
5 % slope, whereas corn (Zea mays) grown on a 4 % slope decision support systems (DSS), such as REC-Phyto-DSS
FAO (2001) Global forest resources assessment 2000 (2003) Fate of heavy metals in a strongly acidic shooting-range soil:

Methods (brief)

tion of methane or ethanol through anaerobic digestion virgatum), miscanthus (Miscanthus spp.), reed canary grass
(Berg et al. 1991; Freedman and Hutchinson 1980; Strojan caused by government actions. Johnson grass (Sorghum
arsenic pollution in soil and biological samples around the mining Chen YH, Li XD, Shen ZG (2004) Leaching and uptake of heavy
Cormish PM (1989) The effects of radiata pine plantation establishment Freedman B, Hutchinson TC (1980) Effects of a smelter pollutants on
Brassica juncea grown in Pb-amended soil. Plant Soil 208:87–94 Jamali MK (2011) Evaluation of arsenic levels in grain crops samples,

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Update history

The five most recent substantive edits to this page, classified major (evidence or structure moved), correction (a published value or statement was wrong and has been fixed), or minor (narrative rewritten without changing the underlying evidence). Each description is derived from what the edit did to this page; the linked commit is the authoritative record, routine regeneration passes are excluded, and the full version history lives in git. When DOI minting comes online (see schema docs), each entry below will also link to a version-pinned DataCite DOI.

Commit	Date	Change	Description
b01ec52c	2026-08-04	major	2 sections added
d49e450f	2026-08-03	major	5 sections added; narrative text revised