Overview
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Key numbers
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- of progeny compared to polyester. Earthworms exposed to lyocell had a marginal growth reduction (−18%; compared to −11% to
- −13% in other treatments) linked to increased bioturbation activity. The biobased fibers examined here have greater acute toxicity at
- concern about (micro)plastic pollution, there has been an plastics, of which >90% are fibers, into soils.11,12 It is estimated
- textile industry where 329,000 tonnes of biobased and agricultural soils varies between countries; in the UK, 96% of
- third largest market share after flexible and rigid packaging Union average of 50%.14,15 Data shows that in England, 16 ×
- been shown to cause a range of impairments on the survival, renewable wood.26 For viscose fibers, the cellulose is
- ical-based fibers dominate the market share, in particular AG, Austria. To produce fibers of the desired size range, 0.5
- polyester which, in 2022, accounted for 56% (63 million cm2 pieces were cut from the fabric and were manually cryo-
- necessary to determine their associated ecological impacts in rinsed with 70% ethanol followed by ultrapure Milli-Q water
- produced by differing industrial production processes.26 In used as this is within the ingestible size range for Eisenia
- 2022, viscose accounted for ∼80% (5.8 million tonnes) and fetida.31 Characterization of the textile material and microfibers
- lyocell 4% (0.3 million tonnes) of all manmade cellulosic are provided in Table 1 and the Supporting Information
- testing due to their differing production processes and transform infrared spectroscopy (Figure S4, Table S1),
- biobased (viscose and lyocell) and conventional (polyester) Tables S2−S4), and powder X-ray diffraction (Figure S6).
- Chemical characterization of the fibers generated from textiles, composition of the materials (n = 3) were investigated with
- experiments were initially conducted to determine the lethal resolution of 4 cm−1 over the range 4000−400 cm−1. The
- methods as closely as possible to give the data utility in compositions of textiles (80−100 μg, n = 3) were examined
- silica guard column (5 m × 0.25 mm, Restek, UK), a BPX5 response curve (Supporting Information Figure S8 and Table
- fused silica capillary 1D column (stationary phase 5% phenyl− S6). A solution was prepared containing 192 μg mL−1
- 95% dimethyl polysiloxane, 20 m × 0.18 mm i.d., 0.18 μm, dissolved in deionized water, equivalent 3.00 μg cm2 on the
- capillary 2D column (stationary phase 50% phenyl poly- earthworms were responsive to the test system. Dishes were
- carrier gas (purity 99.995%) and a modulation period of 4 s. except that chronic effects were investigated. The protocol
- (SepSolve Analytical, UK), and the pyrolysis products were concentration of 100 mg fibers kg−1 dry weight soil (0.01% w/
- 2.2. Test Organisms. The earthworm, Eisenia fetida, was fibers g−1 see Supporting Information Table S5 for an estimate
- ecotoxicological assessment in protocols by the OECD and the within the range reported in soils, for example, 2500 fibers
- vital role in decomposition and nutrient turnover.37 Eisenia mean ± SD, dry soil): pH, 5.5 ± 0.1 (measured in 0.01 M
- fetida was sourced from a commercial supplier (Blades calcium chloride solution); organic carbon, 1.66 ± 0.60%;
- Biological, Kent, UK), and held in synchronous culture at nitrogen content, 0.19 ± 0.06%; cation exchange capacity, 8.5
- per mL) was made. A Sedgewick Rafter counting chamber was 60% water holding capacity with ultrapure Milli-Q water (18.2
- are included in the Supporting Information (Figure S7 and 0.73 ± 0.08 (mean ± SEM, for a subsample of 12 earthworms)
- Table S5). Then, 1 mL of the relevant fiber dispersion was and fully developed clitellum were exposed in 4 replicate
- placed onto a filter paper (Whatman, 90 mm) contained within vessels measuring 25.4 cm × 34.6 cm x 19.2 cm (n = 12
- a 90 mm glass Petri dish, equating to a range of 1.6−157.2 earthworms per container, 48 per treatment) at 20 ± 1 °C in
- each Petri dish (n = 10 dishes per treatment). In addition, a mL of deionized water were added weekly to each test
- Earthworms were collected at days 7 and 28 for biochemistry for 24 h and fixed in buffered formal saline (10%). Transverse
- were sampled at random from each test container (n = 12 per curves based on sigmoidal equations. The model fit was
- recorded, and the worms were acid digested at 70 °C with 70% end points from the chronic exposure experiment, the
- cool, diluted to 20% with ultrapure water (18.2 Ω) and stored calculated to account for individual variability. Reproduction
- Figure 1. Dose−response plots of the mean cumulative mortality, as a percentage, of Eisenia fetida (n = 10) following 72-h exposure to a
- Table 2. Estimated Effect Thresholds Inducing 10%, 20%, and 50% Mortality in E. fetida and No Observed Effect
- could not be calculated as mortality >30% was not achieved.
- than lyocell fibers, meaning that the polymeric chains have a similarity (Section 3.1). As noted above, fibers did not have
Methods (brief)
- This study aimed to compare the ecotoxicity of undyed flight mass spectrometry (Py-GCxGC-TOF MS) (Figure S5,
- but to examine the individual and likely population level effects chromatography and mass spectrometry represents a powerful
- of-flight mass spectrometry (Py-GCxGC-TOF MS). The
- 2.1. Fiber Generation and Characterization. Two with drop-in-sample chamber (DISC) (CDS Analytical, USA)
- analyzed in triplicate, with 80−100 μg of each sample loaded earthworm was considered dead if it failed to respond to a
- inserted in the DISC. Here the sample was pyrolyzed in single after curve fitting (see below) to select a sublethal
- 280 °C. The collected data were processed by ChromSpace Lyocell and Viscose fibers (125−300 μm length), each at a
- method.35 Prior to the experiment, earthworms were collected 50 g d.w. of soil and thoroughly mixed by hand for 10 min. A
- are included in the Supporting Information (Figure S7 and 0.73 ± 0.08 (mean ± SEM, for a subsample of 12 earthworms)
- Earthworms were collected at days 7 and 28 for biochemistry for 24 h and fixed in buffered formal saline (10%). Transverse
- were sampled at random from each test container (n = 12 per curves based on sigmoidal equations. The model fit was
- treatment sampled at 7 and 28 days) and were depurated for examined by the r2 values and the equation which best
- ICP-OES (iCAP 700). The cumulative number of casts produced on the soil surface
- samples collected at the end of the experiment were analyzed grouped by experimental week for further analysis. Analyses
- sampled at 7 and 28 days) were snap frozen in liquid nitrogen proportional mass change of worms, (b) bioturbation activity,
- fold dilution of the original tissue) due to the high protein selected textiles. Polyester samples present typical absorption
- normalized to total protein (25 μL of homogenate, Pierce BCA section S2). The FTIR spectra of viscose and lyocell samples
- A more in-depth characterization of the textile samples was characteristics, rather than by concomitant chemicals.
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Update history
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