Heavy metals in Grain-based snacks (crackers, biscuits, cookies, popcorn, pretzels): non-rice clean counterpart to rice-snacks

Abatemi-Usman et al. 2023

HMI source record · Original source

One dataset family. Linked analytes, repeated seasons and reports are not independent studies.

Effects and comparators

Downwind farms against the upwind control farm, same harvest and method; 12–24 cobs per farm.

How magnitude is classified

HMI editorial magnitude bands: Low is a change greater than 0% and below 25%; Moderate is 25% to below 50%; High is 50% or more, relative to that control’s own comparator. Direction is shown separately. These are descriptive display bands, not validated efficacy cutoffs, occurrence-baseline positions, statistical significance, evidence certainty, safety or net benefit. A range spanning bands retains both labels; a qualitative label has no implied percentage.

Control in context

Maize from the three farms downwind of the plant averaged 230–380 µg/kg lead, against 20 µg/kg at a control farm 18 km upwind; a farm 2.7 km upwind averaged 10 µg/kg.

Design, applicability and operating conditions

Observational field survey. Farmland near a cement plant; wind direction mattered more than distance.

One study family.

As reported by the source

Reduces metal reaching corn, or detects it before release.

Source measurements and linked outcomes

Observational; one plant and harvest.

Differences are read from the source means or medians shown in outcomes.

Basis as stated in outcomes; no mass balance reported.

Trade-offs and implementation

Mycotoxins are outside this table.

Not assessed.

Not assessed.

Not quantified.

Not assessed.

Applicability and verification

Farmland near a cement plant; wind direction mattered more than distance.

Lot testing.

See source.

Extraction limits and next actions

Provenance and assessment

As disclosed by the source.

Source facts and HMI calculations are distinguished above. These selected source findings do not constitute a systematic review; outcome-level appraisal remains incomplete.

El-Hassanin et al. 2020

HMI source record · Original source

One dataset family. Linked analytes, repeated seasons and reports are not independent studies.

Effects and comparators

Wastewater-irrigated sites against the fresh-water site in the same governorate; three field points per site.

How magnitude is classified

HMI editorial magnitude bands: Low is a change greater than 0% and below 25%; Moderate is 25% to below 50%; High is 50% or more, relative to that control’s own comparator. Direction is shown separately. These are descriptive display bands, not validated efficacy cutoffs, occurrence-baseline positions, statistical significance, evidence certainty, safety or net benefit. A range spanning bands retains both labels; a qualitative label has no implied percentage.

Control in context

Maize irrigated with sewage or industrial wastewater carried 260–550 µg/kg lead and 38–112 µg/kg cadmium; maize irrigated with Nile or ground water in the same governorates carried 30 µg/kg lead and 10 µg/kg cadmium or less.

Design, applicability and operating conditions

Observational field survey. Where low-quality irrigation water is used.

One study family.

As reported by the source

Reduces metal reaching corn, or detects it before release.

Source measurements and linked outcomes

Observational; basis not stated; one season.

Differences are read from the source means or medians shown in outcomes.

Basis as stated in outcomes; no mass balance reported.

Trade-offs and implementation

Mycotoxins are outside this table.

Not assessed.

Not assessed.

Not quantified.

Not assessed.

Applicability and verification

Where low-quality irrigation water is used.

Lot testing.

See source.

Extraction limits and next actions

Provenance and assessment

As disclosed by the source.

Source facts and HMI calculations are distinguished above. These selected source findings do not constitute a systematic review; outcome-level appraisal remains incomplete.

Li et al. 2017

HMI source record · Original source

One dataset family. Linked analytes, repeated seasons and reports are not independent studies.

Effects and comparators

Distance gradient from each plant against a retail control.

How magnitude is classified

HMI editorial magnitude bands: Low is a change greater than 0% and below 25%; Moderate is 25% to below 50%; High is 50% or more, relative to that control’s own comparator. Direction is shown separately. These are descriptive display bands, not validated efficacy cutoffs, occurrence-baseline positions, statistical significance, evidence certainty, safety or net benefit. A range spanning bands retains both labels; a qualitative label has no implied percentage.

Control in context

Maize mercury fell from about 21 µg/kg at 1 km to 4.7–6.7 µg/kg at 3 km and 1.06 µg/kg at 5 km; maize bought at a grocery store more than 55 km away held 0.72 µg/kg.

Design, applicability and operating conditions

Observational field survey. Areas downwind of coal combustion.

One study family.

As reported by the source

Reduces metal reaching corn, or detects it before release.

Source measurements and linked outcomes

Observational; sample counts per site not stated.

Differences are read from the source means or medians shown in outcomes.

Basis as stated in outcomes; no mass balance reported.

Trade-offs and implementation

Mycotoxins are outside this table.

Not assessed.

Not assessed.

Not quantified.

Not assessed.

Applicability and verification

Areas downwind of coal combustion.

Lot testing.

See source.

Extraction limits and next actions

Provenance and assessment

As disclosed by the source.

Source facts and HMI calculations are distinguished above. These selected source findings do not constitute a systematic review; outcome-level appraisal remains incomplete.

Maccaferri et al. 2019

HMI source record · Original source

One dataset family. Linked analytes, repeated seasons and reports are not independent studies.

Effects and comparators

Near-isogenic lines and a global durum collection, B1a versus B1b.

How magnitude is classified

HMI editorial magnitude bands: Low is a change greater than 0% and below 25%; Moderate is 25% to below 50%; High is 50% or more, relative to that control’s own comparator. Direction is shown separately. These are descriptive display bands, not validated efficacy cutoffs, occurrence-baseline positions, statistical significance, evidence certainty, safety or net benefit. A range spanning bands retains both labels; a qualitative label has no implied percentage.

Control in context

The non-functional TdHMA3-B1b allele gives two- to threefold more cadmium transport to shoots and grain than the functional B1a allele; a PCR marker distinguishes low- and high-cadmium lines.

Design, applicability and operating conditions

Measured comparison. Durum breeding and cultivar choice; 68% of modern durum cultivars carry the high-cadmium allele.

One study family.

As reported by the source

Reduces metal reaching or retained in the grain, or detects it before release.

Source measurements and linked outcomes

No grain concentrations in the main text.

No percentage calculated unless shown in outcomes.

Not applicable unless stated.

Trade-offs and implementation

Not assessed unless stated.

Not assessed unless stated.

Not assessed.

Not quantified.

Not assessed.

Applicability and verification

Durum breeding and cultivar choice; 68% of modern durum cultivars carry the high-cadmium allele.

Lot testing.

See source.

Extraction limits and next actions

Provenance and assessment

As disclosed by the source.

Source facts and HMI calculations are distinguished above. These selected source findings do not constitute a systematic review; outcome-level appraisal remains incomplete.

Motta-Romero et al. 2021

HMI source record · Original source

One dataset family. Linked analytes, repeated seasons and reports are not independent studies.

Effects and comparators

Untreated plots of the same cultivars, site and years.

How magnitude is classified

HMI editorial magnitude bands: Low is a change greater than 0% and below 25%; Moderate is 25% to below 50%; High is 50% or more, relative to that control’s own comparator. Direction is shown separately. These are descriptive display bands, not validated efficacy cutoffs, occurrence-baseline positions, statistical significance, evidence certainty, safety or net benefit. A range spanning bands retains both labels; a qualitative label has no implied percentage.

Control in context

A single metconazole application at booting lowered the range of cultivar grain cadmium means from 100–190 to 70–140 µg/kg.

Design, applicability and operating conditions

Measured comparison. One site with naturally elevated soil cadmium; one fungicide chemistry.

One study family.

As reported by the source

Reduces metal reaching or retained in the grain, or detects it before release.

Source measurements and linked outcomes

Attributed to yield dilution; other chemistries untested.

No percentage calculated unless shown in outcomes.

Not applicable unless stated.

Trade-offs and implementation

Not assessed unless stated.

Not assessed unless stated.

Not assessed.

Not quantified.

Not assessed.

Applicability and verification

One site with naturally elevated soil cadmium; one fungicide chemistry.

Lot testing.

See source.

Extraction limits and next actions

Provenance and assessment

As disclosed by the source.

Source facts and HMI calculations are distinguished above. These selected source findings do not constitute a systematic review; outcome-level appraisal remains incomplete.

Carey et al. 2018

HMI source record · Original source

One dataset family. Linked analytes, repeated seasons and reports are not independent studies.

Effects and comparators

Multi-grain against pure-rice products, as sold.

How magnitude is classified

HMI editorial magnitude bands: Low is a change greater than 0% and below 25%; Moderate is 25% to below 50%; High is 50% or more, relative to that control’s own comparator. Direction is shown separately. These are descriptive display bands, not validated efficacy cutoffs, occurrence-baseline positions, statistical significance, evidence certainty, safety or net benefit. A range spanning bands retains both labels; a qualitative label has no implied percentage.

Control in context

Infant porridges and cakes mixing rice with maize and other gluten-free grains had median inorganic arsenic of 10 and 8 µg/kg, against 66 and 60 µg/kg for pure rice products; maize’s own share was not measured.

Design, applicability and operating conditions

Observational field survey. Infant food formulation; maize contribution not isolated.

One study family.

As reported by the source

Reduces metal reaching corn, or detects it before release.

Source measurements and linked outcomes

Observational market comparison.

Differences are read from the source means or medians shown in outcomes.

Basis as stated in outcomes; no mass balance reported.

Trade-offs and implementation

Mycotoxins are outside this table.

Not assessed.

Not assessed.

Not quantified.

Not assessed.

Applicability and verification

Infant food formulation; maize contribution not isolated.

Lot testing.

See source.

Extraction limits and next actions

Provenance and assessment

As disclosed by the source.

Source facts and HMI calculations are distinguished above. These selected source findings do not constitute a systematic review; outcome-level appraisal remains incomplete.

WHO GEMS/Food

HMI source record · Original source

One dataset family. Linked analytes, repeated seasons and reports are not independent studies.

Effects and comparators

Reporting regions and periods within one monitoring dataset.

How magnitude is classified

HMI editorial magnitude bands: Low is a change greater than 0% and below 25%; Moderate is 25% to below 50%; High is 50% or more, relative to that control’s own comparator. Direction is shown separately. These are descriptive display bands, not validated efficacy cutoffs, occurrence-baseline positions, statistical significance, evidence certainty, safety or net benefit. A range spanning bands retains both labels; a qualitative label has no implied percentage.

Control in context

Western Pacific submissions from 2001–2010 had 24 of 327 lead results above 200 µg/kg against 8 of 890 in Europe, and European exceedances fell to none of 400 in 2014–2020.

Design, applicability and operating conditions

Observational field survey. Buyers sourcing maize grain internationally.

One study family.

As reported by the source

Reduces metal reaching corn, or detects it before release.

Source measurements and linked outcomes

Observational; reporting regions are not growing areas.

Differences are read from the source means or medians shown in outcomes.

Basis as stated in outcomes; no mass balance reported.

Trade-offs and implementation

Mycotoxins are outside this table.

Not assessed.

Not assessed.

Not quantified.

Not assessed.

Applicability and verification

Buyers sourcing maize grain internationally.

Lot testing.

See source.

Extraction limits and next actions

Provenance and assessment

As disclosed by the source.

Source facts and HMI calculations are distinguished above. These selected source findings do not constitute a systematic review; outcome-level appraisal remains incomplete.

Commission Regulation (EU) 2023/915

HMI source record · Original source

Official guidance; not an independent experimental dataset. Reused across actions without adding studies.

Effects and comparators

Regulatory limits; no measured effect.

How magnitude is classified

HMI editorial magnitude bands: Low is a change greater than 0% and below 25%; Moderate is 25% to below 50%; High is 50% or more, relative to that control’s own comparator. Direction is shown separately. These are descriptive display bands, not validated efficacy cutoffs, occurrence-baseline positions, statistical significance, evidence certainty, safety or net benefit. A range spanning bands retains both labels; a qualitative label has no implied percentage.

Control in context

The EU limits lead at 200 µg/kg and cadmium at 100 µg/kg for cereals, and lead at 100 µg/kg and cadmium at 20 µg/kg for sweet corn, on a wet-weight basis; nickel limits apply from July 2025 for sweet corn (400 µg/kg) and July 2026 for cereals (800 µg/kg).

Design, applicability and operating conditions

Regulatory or author guidance. Corn placed on the EU market.

One study family.

As reported by the source

Reduces metal reaching corn, or detects it before release.

Source measurements and linked outcomes

Testing detects contamination; it does not remove it.

Differences are read from the source means or medians shown in outcomes.

Basis as stated in outcomes; no mass balance reported.

Trade-offs and implementation

Mycotoxins are outside this table.

Not assessed.

Not assessed.

Not quantified.

Not assessed.

Applicability and verification

Corn placed on the EU market.

Lot testing.

See source.

Extraction limits and next actions

Provenance and assessment

As disclosed by the source.

Source facts and HMI calculations are distinguished above. These selected source findings do not constitute a systematic review; outcome-level appraisal remains incomplete.

Thielecke and Nugent 2018

HMI source record · Original source

Official guidance; not an independent experimental dataset. Reused across actions without adding studies.

Effects and comparators

Durum grain versus milled products (secondary citation).

How magnitude is classified

HMI editorial magnitude bands: Low is a change greater than 0% and below 25%; Moderate is 25% to below 50%; High is 50% or more, relative to that control’s own comparator. Direction is shown separately. These are descriptive display bands, not validated efficacy cutoffs, occurrence-baseline positions, statistical significance, evidence certainty, safety or net benefit. A range spanning bands retains both labels; a qualitative label has no implied percentage.

Control in context

The review reports that milling durum wheat reduced nickel most, then arsenic, cadmium and lead, without measured percentages.

Design, applicability and operating conditions

Author guidance or regulatory assessment. Durum milling.

One study family.

As reported by the source

Reduces metal reaching or retained in the grain, or detects it before release.

Source measurements and linked outcomes

Secondary citation without numbers.

No percentage calculated unless shown in outcomes.

Not applicable unless stated.

Trade-offs and implementation

Not assessed unless stated.

Not assessed unless stated.

Not assessed.

Not quantified.

Not assessed.

Applicability and verification

Durum milling.

Lot testing.

See source.

Extraction limits and next actions

Provenance and assessment

As disclosed by the source.

Source facts and HMI calculations are distinguished above. These selected source findings do not constitute a systematic review; outcome-level appraisal remains incomplete.