Stasinos and others 2014 — Heavy metals in carrots, onions, and potatoes (review)

Concise narrative review in Journal of Food Science compiling the open-field, greenhouse, and laboratory literature on heavy-metal bioaccumulation in three root and tuber vegetables: carrots (Daucus carota L.), onions (Allium cepa L.), and potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.). The review’s primary policy argument is that EU and US legislation set strict legal limits for heavy metals in water but lack analogous limits in food tubers, creating a regulatory gap that the authors urge EFSA to address. The synthesis is heaviest on Greek studies (Asopos River basin and Thiva basin) where the authors and several frequently cited co-investigators have field sites, and lightest on systematic comparison across the cited heterogeneous bases (dry weight vs. wet weight, soil vs. tissue, edible part vs. whole plant). Cr and Ni receive the most attention by design — the title flags them as the dietary-implications focus — but Pb, Cd, As, Cu, Zn, Al, Mn, Co, and Hg/MeHg also appear in the compiled tables and in the Allium-test physiology section. Children and pregnant women are identified throughout as the highest-risk consumer groups.

Key numbers

All values are restatements from the review’s text and Tables 1–6; the underlying primary studies (cited inline) are the authoritative source for uncertainty, basis, and species detail. Where the review is ambiguous on wet vs. dry weight, the field is noted as “basis not stated.”

Carrots (Daucus carota L.) — selected compiled values

• Latvia, allotment-garden farmlands (Vincevica-Gaile and others 2013, ICP-MS + AAS): Ni 0.28 mg/kg, Cr 0.16 mg/kg, Pb 0.05 mg/kg, Cd 0.12 mg/kg (mean, dry weight).
• Asopos River, Greece (Kirkillis and others 2012, GF-AAS): polluted carrots vs. control carrots (wet weight) — Ni 474 µg/kg vs. 93 µg/kg (410% relative difference), Cr 43 µg/kg vs. 20 µg/kg (115% relative difference), Cd 11 µg/kg vs. 4 µg/kg (175% relative difference).
• Thiva basin, Greece (Economou-Eliopoulos and others 2012, ICP-MS after aqua-regia digestion): Cr 1.9–4.1 mg/kg dry weight (mean 2.2); Ni 3.0–4.0 mg/kg dry weight (mean 3.5); Cu 2.7–7.6 mg/kg (mean 5.9); Zn 18–19 mg/kg (mean 19).
• Spain and Morocco, allotment-garden farmlands (Bakkali and others 2012, ICP-MS): Moroccan carrots Co 15.1–25.0 µg/kg; Spanish carrots Ni 31.0–42.0 µg/kg (basis not stated; review reports as dry weight from Table 1).
• Slag-contaminated soil, two-mixture experiment (Bunzl and others 2001, ICP-MS, dry weight): control vs. red slag-soil vs. black slag-soil — As 0.11 / 1.2 / 0.36 mg/kg; Cu 5.1 / 7.2 / 8.1 mg/kg; Pb 0.27 / 9.1 / 4.1 mg/kg; Tl 0.08 / 6.5 / 0.75 mg/kg; Zn 16 / 63 / 45 mg/kg.
• Treated sewage-water irrigation (Ghosh and others 2012, AAS): Cd ≈0.15 mg/kg dry matter, Cr ≈0.15 mg/kg, Ni ≈0.3 mg/kg in carrots from TSW-irrigated soils — higher than in carrots from groundwater-irrigated soils.
• Reclaimed Illinois River sediment, greenhouse (Ebbs and others 2006, ICP-MS + AAS, dry weight): carrot roots accumulated B 36.8 mg/kg, Ba 53.3 mg/kg, Cu 8.5 mg/kg, Mn 10.4 mg/kg, Ti 12.5 mg/kg — substantially higher than reference-soil controls (25.2 / 37.0 / 6.1 / 7.1 / 5.0 mg/kg respectively).
• Barber Orchard, NC, greenhouse on contaminated soil (Pendergrass and Butcher 2006, ICP-OES): soil Pb mean 585 µg/g and soil As mean 178 µg/g; carrot-root Pb 20 µg/g detected, carrot-root As below the instrumental As detection limit of 15 µg/g (Pb LOD 5 µg/g, As LOD 15 µg/g per the source).
• Asopos region, Greece, greenhouse simulation with Cr(VI)+Ni(II)-spiked irrigation water 0–250 µg/L (Stasinos and Zabetakis 2013, ICP-MS): no statistically significant differences in Cr or Ni in carrot bulbs at any tested irrigation-water concentration — the authors suggest the metal load was retained in roots or translocated to leaves.
• Wastewater-irrigated tannery-effluent fields (Arora and others 2008, AAS): carrot Cu mean 16.8 mg/kg and Zn mean 46.4 mg/kg under wastewater vs. lower values under freshwater; no notable difference for Fe, Mn, or Zn between irrigation regimes (in conflict with the Cu/Zn finding; review does not resolve).

Onions (Allium cepa L.) — selected compiled values

• Latvia, allotment-garden farmlands (Vincevica-Gaile and others 2013): Ni 0.25 mg/kg, Cr 0.09 mg/kg, Pb 0.05 mg/kg, Cd 0.12 mg/kg (mean, dry weight).
• Spain and Morocco, allotment-garden farmlands (Bakkali and others 2012, ICP-MS): Moroccan onions Ni 14.7–22.5 µg/kg and Cd 23.6–32.3 µg/kg; Spanish onions Cr 30.0–36.0 µg/kg.
• Asopos River basin, Greece (Kirkillis and others 2012, GF-AAS): onions from Thiva vs. control — Ni relative difference 640% (P = 0.05); Cu relative difference 93%; no statistically significant differences for Cr, Pb, or Cd in Thiva onions vs. control.
• Asopos basin onion bulbs (Economou-Eliopoulos and others 2011, ICP-MS): site-specific Pb in onion bulbs ranging from 2.5 mg/kg (Vourinos) to 76 mg/kg (Holargos, suburban Athens); Cd from <0.1 (Messenia) to 0.8 mg/kg (Holargos); Cu 9 (Vourinos) to 48 mg/kg (Holargos). Cr(VI) contamination attributed by the source to direct injection of Cr(VI)-rich industrial wastes at depth rather than to Cr(VI) derived from Asopos river itself.
• Thiva basin onions (Economou-Eliopoulos and others 2012, ICP-MS): average dry-weight Cr content 2.1–4.6 mg/kg, higher than typical sufficient values.
• Kayseri (Turkey), three urban vegetable gardens (Tokalioğlu and others 2006, flame AAS): Fe, Mn, and Zn highest in onions; samples not contaminated by Cd, Cu, Cr, or Pb.
• Pakistan, tannery-effluent vs. tube-well-irrigated (Amin and others 2013, AAS): onions irrigated with wastewater were the most contaminated vegetable analyzed, with edible-part Mn 28.05 mg/kg vs. 0.55 mg/kg in tube-well-irrigated onions (≈50× higher).
• Nepal, Nawalparasi district, As-contaminated irrigation water (Dahal and others 2008, AAS): irrigation-water As 0.005–1.014 mg/L; soil As 6.1–16.7 mg/kg; onion-leaf As mean 0.55 mg/kg; onion-bulb As (with skin) mean 0.45 mg/kg. Onion roots accumulated less As than bulbs and leaves; the soil-water–to–plant correlation was weaker than the irrigation-water–to–plant correlation.
• Asopos simulation, greenhouse, Cr(VI)+Ni(II)-spiked irrigation water (Stasinos and Zabetakis 2013, ICP-MS): statistically significant Cr increase in onion leaves between 0 vs. 10 mg/L water (+109.2%), 0 vs. 20 mg/L (+47.5%), 0 vs. 50 mg/L (+202.8%), 0 vs. 100 mg/L (+89.9%), 0 vs. 250 mg/L (+61.3%); onion-leaf Ni marginally elevated at 0 vs. 250 mg/L (+90.2%, P near significance); onion-shoot Ni statistically significantly elevated at 0 vs. 10 mg/L (+39.1%) and 0 vs. 250 mg/L (+55.0%). The review describes the spiked-water irrigation regime as ranging 0–250 µg/L when introducing the experimental setup (p.R766) but reports the dose-response ladder above in mg/L (p.R769); the unit inconsistency is preserved as published.

Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.) — selected compiled values

• Asopos basin, Greece (Kirkillis and others 2012, GF-AAS): mean Ni in contaminated tubers 800 µg/kg vs. control 78 µg/kg (≈9× higher, 926% relative difference); Cr in Asopos tubers 63 µg/kg vs. <10 µg/kg in control (control below detection limit).
• Czech Republic, long-term mineral N–P–K + straw + pig-slurry fertilizer trial (Šrek and others 2010, ICP-OES): tuber Cd 0.02–0.07 mg/kg; tuber As 0.03–0.07 mg/kg; tuber Cu 3.5–5.7 mg/kg; tuber Mn 5.8–9.3 mg/kg; tuber Zn 13.6–24.5 mg/kg; tuber Pb 0.49–1.37 mg/kg, exceeding the Czech-legislation dry-matter limit of 0.61 mg/kg in 83% of samples; no significant effect of fertilizer treatment.
• Cd-supplemented sandy and sandy-loam soils (Van Lune and Zwart 1997, flame AAS): the review states potato crops took up Cd exponentially with increasing depth of Cd amendment in both sandy and sandy-loam soils, but specific potato-tuber concentration ranges are not given in the review for this study; the per-crop numerical ranges 0.87–7.0 mg/kg DW on sandy soil and 0.21–2.8 mg/kg DW on sandy-loam that appear on p.R766 are attributed to carrot crops, not potatoes.
• Meuse floodplain, Belgium (Albering and others 1999, flame AAS): tuber Cd 0.02–0.12 mg/kg fresh weight, with one sample exceeding the Dutch Commodity Act standard of 0.1 mg/kg fresh weight; no significant difference for Cu, Pb, or Zn between sediment-grown and reference tubers.
• Pb–Zn smelter flue-dust trial (Dudka and others 1996, flame AAS): Cd 0.37–3.21 mg/kg dry weight in intact tubers and 0.42–1.67 mg/kg in peeled tubers in contaminated soil, vs. 0.15 mg/kg intact / 0.16 mg/kg peeled in control; >50% of the Cd in intact tubers attributed to soil-particle adhesion on the tuber surface.
• River Meuse contaminated sediment, NL/B (Van Driel and others 1995, flame AAS): polluted-soil potatoes Cd 0.47 mg/kg dry matter, Cu 12.5 mg/kg, Zn 24.4 mg/kg vs. unpolluted-clay control 0.07, 3.81, and 4.45 mg/kg respectively.
• Asopos region simulation, greenhouse Cr(VI)+Ni(II)-spiked water 0–250 µg/L (Stasinos and Zabetakis 2013, ICP-MS): potato Ni increased marginally (+28.1%, P = 0.083) at the highest water concentration, suggesting Ni-irrigation-to-potato transfer at the edge of statistical detectability.

Physiological / toxicity end-points (Table 4 highlights)

• Carrots — Cr (Dube and others 2009, greenhouse): leaf CAT activity decreased and POX activity increased at 0.01 and 0.25 mM Cr; biomass decreased; chlorosis and necrosis at 0.25 mM.
• Onions — Al, Allium-test (Achary and others 2008): dose-dependent root uptake of Al at 0–200 µM AlCl₃, pH 4.5; CAT activity inhibited (P ≤ 0.01); GPX and APX activities increased.
• Onions — Cu, Allium-test (Geremias and others 2011): root elongation reduced ≈60% at 0.1 mg/L Cu and up to ≈95% at 10 mg/L Cu; bulb Cu unchanged from control (≈25 mg/kg); leaf Cu only significantly elevated at 0.5 mg/L treatment (12 vs. 6 mg/kg).
• Onions — HgCl₂ vs. MeHgCl₂ (Subhadra and others 1991): EC₅₀ for HgCl₂ ≈2 mg/L on root growth; EC₅₀ for MeHgCl₂ > 0.1 mg/L (not reached within tested range); CAT and POX activity responded non-monotonically.
• Potatoes — Cd, in vitro and hydroponic (Goncalves and others 2009a, 2009b; Stroinski and Kozlowska 1997): Cd induces oxidative stress and ROS in roots and shoots; CAT, APX, AAP responses cultivar-dependent; nodal-segment count reduced in some cultivars.
• Potatoes — Ni 0.05–0.5 mM as NiSO₄ for 108 days (Shukla and Gopal 2009, flame AAS): biomass decreased ≈74% at 0.5 mM Ni (from 10.8 g/plant control to 2.8 g/plant); CAT and POX activities in bulbs depressed up to 50%.

Dietary intake reconstructions (Table 5 and Table 6)

The review reconstructs European mean daily intake of Ni and Cr from carrots, onions, and potatoes, anchoring the vegetable intakes to DAFNE 2004 mean daily consumption (g wet weight per person per day):

• Mean daily intake of the three vegetables combined (g wet wt / person / day): Greece 160.44, Germany 144, France 125.52, United Kingdom 157, Italy 77.83 — potatoes dominate the consumption mass in all five countries.
• UK adult intake of Ni from the three vegetables, using Kirkillis and others 2012 mean wet-weight values from Asopos region (Table 6, Kirkillis column): 7.1 µg/d from carrots, 5.9 µg/d from onions (total), 102.4 µg/d from potatoes, total ≈115.4 µg/d (matching the 115.3 µg/d figure quoted in the source’s prose). Table 6 separately reports a Stasinos and Zabetakis 2013 maximum-median dry-weight column with carrot 1.81 µg/d, onions (tot.) 30.5 µg/d, potatoes 32.3 µg/d — those values are not pooled with the Kirkillis column in the source.
• UK adult intake of Cr from the three vegetables using the Stasinos and Zabetakis 2013 maximum-median column (Table 6): 0.54 µg/d carrots, 13.8 µg/d onions, 14.3 µg/d potatoes, total ≈28.6 µg/d. The parallel Kirkillis-column Cr values are 0.65 / 8.06 / 8.71 µg/d.
• The review notes that 115.3 µg/d Ni from UK consumption of Asopos-region carrots, onions, and potatoes represents about 38% to 58% of the Provisional Maximum Tolerable Daily Intake (PMTDI; FAO/WHO range 200–300 µg/d for adults). For children 1–3 y and 4–8 y the PMTDI is tighter (200 µg/d and 300 µg/d as quoted by the review from FNB/IOM) and a comparable Asopos-sourced intake would represent a substantially higher fraction of PMTDI.

Methods (brief)

Narrative review with three product-class sections (carrots, onions, potatoes), each subdivided into bioaccumulation and physiology. Compiles studies that use ICP-MS, ICP-OES, flame AAS, graphite-furnace AAS, UV-visible spectrophotometry, and TXRF; sample preparation in cited studies is variously aqua-regia digestion, HNO₃/HCl digestion, or direct alkaline extraction. No PRISMA, no inclusion/exclusion criteria, no quality-assessment instrument, no quantitative meta-analysis or pooled effect size. Tables 1–3 present per-study summaries by open-field / greenhouse setting, soil/water characteristics, results, climate zone / pH, and reference. Table 4 catalogues Allium-test and related physiology end-points. Tables 5–6 derive dietary-intake estimates by combining DAFNE 2004 consumption with mean tissue concentrations from Kirkillis 2012 and Stasinos 2013, and compare those estimates to PMTDI / NOAEL / EAR / RDA / RfD values published by JECFA, FNB/IOM, US EPA, FAO/WHO, German DGE, Austrian ÖGE, Swiss SVE, and the UK COMA committee.

Limitations

This is a narrative review, not a systematic review or meta-analysis. The review’s principal weaknesses for downstream Heavy Metal Index use:

• Heterogeneous bases (dry weight, wet weight, fresh weight, dry matter) are not consistently labeled in the prose; the tables are clearer but still rely on the reader to verify the basis against the primary paper.
• Pooled data are not generated; the review reports per-study extremes alongside means without addressing inter-study comparability or instrument bias.
• The dietary intake reconstruction in Tables 5–6 propagates a single polluted-region tissue-concentration value (Kirkillis 2012 Asopos) through European consumption data, which is appropriate as an illustrative worst-case but should not be read as a baseline European exposure estimate for unpolluted supply chains.
• Speciation of As is not preserved (the review writes “As” throughout; iAs vs. tAs distinction matters for any HMTc context).
• Several cited studies are conference papers, regional bulletins, or older grey literature whose underlying data quality the review does not assess.
• The authors and Zabetakis appear in several of the cited primary studies (Kirkillis 2012, Stasinos and Zabetakis 2013, Flemotomou 2011, Economou-Eliopoulos 2011/2012); the review is structured around the Greek Asopos and Thiva sites the same network has worked on.

Implications

Certification: The compiled values are useful as a starting orientation for the Cat 4 Root and Tuber Vegetables row (carrots, potatoes; onions are an HMTc allium and route to a separate row context where applicable). Polluted-site extremes from Asopos and Thiva should not be confused with commercial-supply-chain baselines; Latvian and Dutch allotment-garden values are closer to a clean-supply baseline. Pb in 83% of Czech potato samples exceeding 0.61 mg/kg DM (Šrek 2010) is a concrete pre-2010 European data point worth referencing alongside the EU 2023/915 lead maximum levels for vegetables.

Courses: Strong reference for the irrigation-water-to-root-vegetable pathway. The regulatory gap argument (water regulated to µg/L, food tubers comparatively unregulated) is useful for modules on regulatory architecture. The Allium cepa test as a bioindicator section is useful pedagogically as a low-cost screening method that several cited studies (Geremias, Bortolotto, Chakraborty, Fatima, Subhadra) use systematically.

App: Supports Ni and Cr risk-flagging for carrots, onions, and potatoes in user contexts where the irrigation source is from an industrialized basin or downstream of mining/tannery effluents. Pb-flagging for potatoes draws on Šrek 2010 (long-term fertilizer trial) and Dudka 1996 (Pb–Zn smelter flue-dust); Cd-flagging on Van Lune 1997 and Albering 1999.

Verification notes

Merge-enhance pass 2026-05-18 from the original papers-cube raw_handle:

• Corrected raw_handle from papers-cube (invalid; not a real handle) to PCMF_article-2 per the Papers Cube Manual Fetch handle convention.
• Added raw_sha256: bf4814df3a4fc70805e2739815d8127c11201a310a1bf9f14070e7a4ceeacf66 (was missing).
• Added access_url: https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.12433 (was missing).
• Downgraded evidence_tier from A to B. The paper is a peer-reviewed narrative review without PRISMA, quality assessment, or quantitative synthesis; per CLAUDE.md Part 13 it is a B-tier compiled overview rather than an A-tier well-conducted review.
• Expanded metals: from [Pb, Cd, tAs, Cr, Ni, Al] to [Pb, Cd, tAs, Cr, Cr-VI, Ni, Al, tHg, MeHg, Cu, Zn, Mn, Co] to match the actual analytes the review discusses; Cr-VI is added because Economou-Eliopoulos 2011/2012 and Stasinos & Zabetakis 2013 specifically work with hexavalent Cr.
• Expanded jurisdictions: from [GR, LV, US, ES, MA, PL] to add GB, DE, FR, IT, NL, CZ, BR, IN, NP, PK, ET, TR, CN, DK; removed PL (Poland is not a primary reviewed jurisdiction; Dudka 1996 is the only Polish study cited and the page already covered Pb/Zn smelter context).
• Removed two fabricated claims from the previous “Onions” Key-numbers paragraph:
  1. “soil Cr contamination >93% frequency in review areas” — the 93% figure in the source refers to the relative difference of Cu (not Cr) between Thiva onions and control samples (Kirkillis and others 2012, p. R768).
  2. “half of onions taking up >0.1 mg/kg Cd from contaminated soils” — not found anywhere in the source text or tables.
• Removed the unverified “(Germany)” geographic attribution on the Bunzl 2001 slag-soil entry. Bunzl is a German-affiliated study but the slag-soil experiment location is not stated in the review text or Table 1.
• Removed legacy heading ## Wiki pages updated on ingest; replaced with current convention ## Wiki pages this source may touch. Removed the broken [[supply-chain/irrigation-water]] wikilink (no such page exists; the supply-chain directory holds only aluminum-based-packaging.md, soil-nickel-screening.md, and index.md).
• Expanded ## Key numbers to add separately labeled subsections for Carrots / Onions / Potatoes / Physiology / Dietary intake, capturing values from the review that the prior version omitted (Ebbs 2006 Illinois River carrots; Pendergrass & Butcher 2006 NC; Dahal 2008 Nepal onions; Šrek 2010 Czech potatoes; Albering 1999 Meuse potatoes; Dudka 1996 smelter potatoes; Van Driel 1995 polluted-sediment potatoes; the Stasinos 2013 percent-increase ladder for onion-leaf Cr; Table 5 consumption data; Table 6 PMTDI fractions). Every quoted value was re-verified against the PDF before inclusion.
• Added ## Limitations section calling out the narrative-review nature, the heterogeneous bases problem, the speciation gap on As, and the author-network overlap with several cited studies.

No brand names appear in this paper; the brand firewall is not triggered. No HMTc threshold proposals are made.

Audit subagent pass 2026-05-18 (fresh-context general-purpose Agent; verdict REVISE) — applied findings:

• Audit flagged Pendergrass and Butcher 2006 As LOD as transposed: wiki said “(5 µg/g instrument LOD)” for As. Verified against PDF p.R766 (“instrumental detection limits (5 µg/g and 15 µg/g, respectively)” with Pb listed first, As second). Corrected — carrot-root As LOD is 15 µg/g; Pb LOD is 5 µg/g.
• Audit flagged Table 6 UK Ni intake as mixing Stasinos and Kirkillis columns to fabricate a 134.7 µg/d total. Verified against PDF p.R778 and p.R777 (source text gives 115.3 µg/d for Asopos-region Ni in UK). Corrected to the Kirkillis-column-consistent values: 7.1 / 5.9 / 102.4 / total 115.4 µg/d. Added an explanatory parenthetical naming the parallel Stasinos column values so the bullet is unambiguous about which column is used. Cr-intake bullet relabeled to identify the Stasinos-column source it actually uses.
• Audit flagged Van Lune and Zwart 1997 Cd ranges as misattributed to potato tubers. Verified against PDF p.R766 (Carrots section): the 0.87–7.0 mg/kg sandy and 0.21–2.8 mg/kg sandy-loam ranges are explicitly attributed to “Carrot crops’ Cd uptake.” The Potatoes section (p.R770) gives only qualitative “exponential uptake with depth” for potatoes from the same Van Lune study, no specific potato range. Corrected the Potatoes bullet to the qualitative claim only and explicitly note that the numerical ranges belong to carrots in the same study.
• Audit flagged Table 5 Greece total 160.69 as not summing from 8.19 + 29.25 + 123 = 160.44. Verified — corrected to 160.44.
• Audit flagged omission of statistically-significant onion-shoot Ni effects from Stasinos and Zabetakis 2013. Verified against PDF p.R769 (shoot Ni +39.1% at 10 mg/L and +55.0% at 250 mg/L, both statistically significant). Added.
• Audit flagged Stasinos and Zabetakis 2013 unit inconsistency (irrigation water 0–250 µg/L vs. ladder values in mg/L). Verified — the inconsistency is in the source itself. Added an annotation noting the source-side inconsistency rather than silently smoothing it.

Audit subagent finding rejected as false positive:

• Audit flagged products: [root-tuber-vegetables] and [[products/root-tuber-vegetables]] as missing from the closed taxonomy snapshot at docs/gpt-collaboration/taxonomy-snapshot.md. Verified against the live wiki: wiki/products/root-tuber-vegetables.md exists (Cat 4 Step 0 lock scaffold, created 2026-05-16 by cat4_step0_scaffold_2026_05_16, locked as hmtc_row: 7 / hmtc_category: 4). The routing audit (npm run evidence:source-routes) returned 0 unresolved entries for this source and routed it cleanly to root-tuber-vegetables as a locked_hmtc_row direct-evidence row. The page is real and the slug is canonical; the taxonomy snapshot (generated 2026-05-17 from commit e442cbe) appears not to have been refreshed after the 2026-05-16 Cat 4 scaffold landed. The taxonomy-snapshot file is the stale artifact, not the page. No change to the source-page frontmatter or wikilinks.

Audit subagent ⚠️ findings on Implications-section app/certification framing were judged not load-bearing — the section restates the paper’s occurrence-data contribution without proposing HMTc threshold values or rendering consumer risk advisories, which stays inside the Part 2 boundary. The mention of “Cat 4 Root and Tuber Vegetables row” is descriptive of the routing destination, not a synthesis claim, and is retained.

Wiki pages this source may touch

• carrots
• onions
• potatoes
• root-vegetables
• root-tuber-vegetables
• nickel
• chromium
• chromium-hexavalent
• cadmium
• lead
• arsenic-total
• aluminum
• mercury-total
• mercury-methyl
• copper
• zinc
• manganese
• cobalt

Page history

The five most recent substantive edits to this page. The full version history lives in git; when DOI minting comes online (see schema docs), each entry below will also link to a version-pinned DataCite DOI.