Llorente-Mirandes et al. 2016 — Review of iAs determination methods in food, 2010–2015
This focal-point review in Applied Spectroscopy surveys analytical proposals for quantification of inorganic arsenic (iAs) in food products published between 2010 and 2015, covering approximately 115 publications from the Web of Science database. The review addresses method principles, certified reference materials (CRMs), proficiency testing (PT) programmes, and worldwide regulatory maximum levels (MLs) for iAs and total As (tAs). The dominant recommended method for food iAs is HPLC-ICP-MS (hydride generation–atomic fluorescence spectrometry as a complementary technique), with an ongoing proposal for a CEN TC275/WG10 standard and AOAC SMPR 2015.006 for arsenic species quantification in foods and beverages.
Key numbers
Global regulatory MLs for iAs (mg/kg, from Table 1 in the paper): EU (2015): non-parboiled milled/polished rice 0.20, parboiled rice and husked rice 0.25, rice waffles/wafers/crackers 0.30, rice destined for infant food 0.10. China (2012, GB 2762): paddy rice, brown rice, white rice 0.20 iAs; grains (excluding paddy) total As 0.5. Australia/New Zealand (2015, FSANZ): crustacea 2.0 iAs, fish 2.0 iAs, molluscs 1.0 iAs, seaweed (edible kelp) 1.0 iAs, cereal grains/milled cereal products total As 1.0. Canada (CFIA 2014): fish protein 3.5 iAs, edible bone meal 1.0 iAs, fruit juices/nectar 0.1 iAs, muscle of swine/chicken/turkey/eggs 0.5 iAs (ML for arsanilic acid). USA (FDA 2001): chicken/turkey uncooked muscle 0.5 iAs, chicken/turkey uncooked by-products 2.0 iAs, swine uncooked liver/kidney 2.0 iAs. WHO drinking water maximum tolerable level: 10 µg/L tAs. EFSA 2014 BMDL estimates: 0.3–8.0 µg/kg BW/day for lung, skin, bladder cancer. JECFA BMDL: 3.0 µg/kg BW/day (lung cancer). Dietary intake estimates from Lynch et al.: seaweed/algae 11,000 µg/kg iAs, seafood 130 µg/kg, rice 130 µg/kg, apple juice 5.8 µg/kg, infant food/cereals/dairy 92 µg/kg, vegetables 20 µg/kg. Prior WHO/FAO PTWI of 15 µg/kg BW/week for iAs was withdrawn by EFSA and JECFA as no longer appropriate (a threshold cannot be established for carcinogens without a threshold dose-response).
Methods (brief)
Systematic literature review of 115 publications (2010–2015) from Web of Science using search terms “arsenite,” “arsenate,” or “food/food synonyms” combined with “inorganic,” “iAs,” or “arsenate.” Review scope excludes primary dietary-exposure studies; covers only analytical methodology, CRM, and PT data. Primary method assessed: HPLC-ICP-MS. Complementary methods covered: HG-AFS, ESI-MS, XANES, HPLC-ICP-MS. CEN standardisation status: EN 16278:2012 for animal feeding stuffs (HG-AAS); CEN TC275/WG10 ongoing for food. AOAC SMPR 2015.006 fourth draft version at time of writing.
Limitations
Review covers only 2010–2015 literature; analytical method landscape has continued to evolve. Regulatory table (Table 1) reflects regulations as of 2015–2016; several jurisdictions have updated limits since then (notably EU Regulation 2023/915 supersedes the 2015 MLs cited here for rice). No primary data generated; all numbers are compiled from cited sources. Authors are from the University of Barcelona and have no declared conflicts, but the review is inherently selective in which methods receive emphasis.
Implications
- Certification: This review provides a consolidated 2015-era snapshot of worldwide iAs regulatory MLs, which is useful for understanding the regulatory landscape at the time the FDA’s Closer to Zero programme was being developed. The EU rice MLs cited (0.10–0.30 mg/kg depending on product) are the immediate predecessors of the current EU 2023/915 framework. The finding that the former WHO PTWI for iAs was withdrawn because no safe threshold can be set for a carcinogen is directly relevant to how HMT&C should frame iAs limits.
- Courses: Essential methodological reference for the arsenic-speciation page; covers why HPLC-ICP-MS is the gold-standard method, why simpler total-As proxies are inadequate for regulatory compliance, and the state of international harmonisation in iAs analytical standards.
- App: The dietary intake estimates (rice 130 µg/kg iAs, infant food/cereals 92 µg/kg) provide cross-check values against the rice contamination_profile; note these are 2010–2015 era estimates.
- Microbiome: Not applicable.